<^
./ /Jfe'- ^^../ .'Ic^;'^ v./ /^^' ^^
i^fe\ •%.<^ .*^v^^_ -^^^ .^
.<^^
\J
'cpv
^^^cs^
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2011 with funding from
Tine Library of Congress
http://www.arcliive.org/details/pestalozziaccoun01holm
A. Piste, 1822.
Pestalozzi.
Ffom a miniature given to Rev. C, Mayo, D.D„ and now in the possession 0/ Miss Mayo..
PESTALOZZI
AN ACCOUNT OF HIS LIFE AND WORK
H?*' HOLM AN
M.A. (cANTAB), formerly PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN TH]
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF WALES, ABERYSTWYTH
Author of " An Introduction to Education,"
"English National Education,"
"Oberlin," etc.
WITH FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS
AND DIAGRAMS IN THE TEXT
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK, BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA
1908
[All rights reserved]
PREFACE.
*' Oh, how true it is that the teacher without psycho-
logy does his work as badly as an old woman doctoring."
Thus wrote Steinmiiller in 1799, in relation to Pesta-
lozzi's ideas. Pestalozzi said : " I want to psychologise
instruction ". There is still some room for a modern
Pestalozzi. Meantime much may be gained by a study
of Pestalozzi's attempts to psychologise education. A
study of origins is, to a student sufficiently well prepared,
a great aid to the fullest grasp of pure theory ; for
abstract science, so far as it is true, must proceed from
and return to its simplest forms. To say the least of it,
he is very much to be envied or pitied who cannot still
learn something from Pestalozzi.
The aim of the present account of the life and work
of Pestalozzi is to provide students, and teachers who
still study, with the material for a thoughtful survey of
the principles and practices of one of the greatest of the
world's pioneer educators and educationists. Every effort
has been made to set forth as clearly as possible what
Pestalozzi thought, wrote, and did, and not to expound
IV PREFACE.
what the writer of this book thinks of what Pestalozzi
thought, and wrote, and did. Of course this does not
mean that no opinions are given; but great care has
been taken to restrict these as much as possible. The
greatest success of this volume will be that it gives the
fullest opportunity, and greatest stimulus, to the readers
to do their own thinking and formulate their own con-
clusions.
To this end very full and frequent quotations are
made both from translations of Pestalozzi's works, and
from the writings of those who knew him best; and were
most competent to criticise, favourably and unfavourably,
his work. Whilst this should be helpful as an easy
introduction to a general view of the man and his work,
it is hoped that it will also lead the reader to the original
sources, or their translations. Those who have not
thus gone to the original sources will be surprised to
find how easily and quickly they can read through
books for the reading of which the mind has already
been well prepared.
This is to cultivate the true student method. Nothing
is so mentally degrading as to regard a book as an
examination task, and to be grateful to the writer in
proportion as he has done all the thinking, and, so to
say, tied up the results in well-arranged and plainly
labelled parcels, so that they may be easily stored
amongst the memory cargo, and readily unpacked when
required. To aim at examination success only, or
PREFACE. V
mainly, is the most certain way of killing intellectual
growth and development.
The educational function of a writer is to do for the
readers what the wise teacher does for his pupils, i.e.,
give them the best materials, conditions and oppor-
tunities for self-activity and self-development. If this
be done, the attitude and the aptitudes of the research
student will be fostered, and a scientific grasp result
from a scientific method. In this way intelligent
readers should obtain from a book with such a topic as
this one, some idea of the evolution of educational
systems; of the genetic theory of thought itself; and
some sense of historical perspective — which will teach a
proper modesty in estimating the progress of our own
times. To realise how much of the present consists of
the past, and how much more of truth and strength
than of error and weakness there was in the great men
of old, will reveal to us unexpected treasures of know-
ledge and inspiration.
So far as the present writer has, by selection, given a
particular tone and colouring to his view of his hero, he
has deliberately chosen to make it as appreciative as
possible. He has sought to include everything con-
cerning the man which, he believes, has done, and will
do, good to the world at large ; and rigorously to ex-
clude all that is foreign to this purpose. He holds the
view that all that is good should live after a man, and all
that is not so should be decently buried with his bones
VI PREFACE.
— except in so far as the pathologist of men and man-
ners can make a proper and profitable use of it. In
particular it is the educational good which it is desired
to propound and perpetuate. Pestalozzi was, educa-
tionally, one of the world's greatest benefactors.
My special thanks are due to Miss Mayo, of River-
dale, Dorking, for her generous and valuable help in
allowing me to make use of Dr. Mayo's literary re-
mains ; and for having copies made of the original
pictures of which reproductions are given in this book.
I am also indebted to Rev. Canon C. H. Mayo, of
Long Burton Vicarage, Sherborne, for information
gleaned from his Genealogical Account of the Mayo and
Elton Families.
H. HOLMAN.
Leeds, T.jth jfuly, 1908.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
Preface iii
I. The Spirit of the Times i
II. Early Years and Education ig
III. He Begins His Life-work 32
IV. Pestalozzi as a Literary Man 50
V. Pestalozzi at Stanz and Burgdorf . , . .71
VI. Pestalozzi at Yverdon gi-
VII. The Death-song 113
VIIL Pestalozzi the Man 120
IX. Pestalozzi the Thinker ....... 142
X. Pestalozzi the Thinker (continued) 167
XI. Pestalozzi's Methods of Teaching Language, Form
and Number ig7
XII. Pestalozzi's Methods of Teaching Various Other
Subjects 230
XIII. Pestalozzi's General Methods and Views . , . 256
XIV. Pestalozzi as a Practical Teacher .... 283
XV. Some Criticisms on Pestalozzi's Theories . , . 291
XVI. What Pestalozzi did for Education .... 307
Some Books for Reference, and Suggestions for
Further Reading 3ig
Index , , , , . 321
vii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Pestalozzi Frontispiece
From a miniature given to Rev, C, Mayo, D.D., and now in
the possession of Miss Mayo.
FACING PAGE
View of Yverdon . . ' 91
From a sketch in the possession of Miss Mayo.
Pestalozzi at Yverdon. An allegorical picture ; Pestalozzi is in
his room at the Castle, yet the Castle is in the scene through
the window 256
From a transparency in the possession of Miss Mayo.
Part of a Letter written by Pestalozzi. The sketch of
THE Castle (Yverdon) is by Dr. Mayo .... 314
From MS. in the possession of Miss Mayo.
VUi
CHAPTER I.
THE SPIRIT OF THE TIMES.
Given a certain native genius of mind and character,
it is true of most of the world's great men that they are
as much the product of their own and previous times as
they are the reformers of their own age, and the formers
of some of the elements of all subsequent ages. It is,
therefore, necessary to know something of the spirit of
the times in which a man lived if we are to know, fully
and truly, what he was and what he did. It has been
well said that a proverb is the wisdom of all ages wit-
tily expressed — world wisdom crystallised by individual
wit. In much the same way it is true to say that the
wisdom and work of the world's heroes represent the
wisdom and work of all men articulated and universal-
ised by a great master-man. Not every one, however, can
make proverbs, nor can every one discover and reveal
foundation principles. It needs at least a flash of genius
for the one and a man of genius for the other. We can
get only as we give ; and he who sees the world's secrets
is he- who has the large vision and the great soul. All
are called but few are chosen : all come under the in-
fluences, but only the finely tempered mind and man is
in " sympathetic vibration " with them. From him rings
out the new note of revelation ; and happy is the world
if it hearkens thereto.
I
2 PESTALOZZI.
The master-mind is not the only star in a particular
intellectual firmament, but it is at least one of the suns
therein. The real founder of theories and institutions
is not necessarily the first or the only one who has
thought and acted in such matters, but he who gathers
up and puts into clear and potent form great truths :
he who universalises what has hitherto been individual
and special : he who gives to all what would otherwise
have been only for the few : he who completes, in the
large sense, what others only began. The great man
can no more exist without the help of smaller men, than
smaller men can become greater without the help of
the great man. How much each owes to the other it
is useless to discuss and impossible to determine : we
might as well ask whether the product ah is the more
indebted to the factor a or h. It is sufficient to re-
member that neither can do without the other, nor can
either do the work of the other.
In trying to set forth the relations of Pestalozzi and
his work to the spirit of the age in which he lived, we
shall take it as true that every great popular movement
in favour of educational progress has been chiefly based
on political and social grounds. It has ever been the
general aim to consider how to make a man a good
citizen rather than a good man ; though, of course, the
latter effect could never be wholly ignored, and has
always been most clearly recognised by the clearest
thinkers and the best intentioned workers. Neverthe-
less, one is inclined to say that, as a rule, educational
progress has been the result of the slow growth of a
conviction that it pays better to have men rather than
beasts of burden as citizens. The movement towards
the social and intdlectual emancipation of *' the lower
EDUCATION IS PRIMARILY A SOCIAL MOVEMENT. 3
orders " has always received its most powerful stimulus
'from the efforts of the great thinkers and philanthropists
of their times, and from the consequences of the in-
tolerable sufferings and oppressions heaped upon the
victims of ignorance and greed, i.e.^ " the lower orders " —
which they in fact were, thanks to the treatment they
received.
It is a happy dispensation that in the nature of things
the struggles — in their own interests only, in the first
instance — for progress of those at the top of the social
scale inevitably bring, in the long run, great good to
those at the bottom. The growth of political power
(in modern times), and with it the increase of educa-
tional and social advantages, has been downwards from
kings to the aristocracy ; the aristocracy to the middle
classes ; middle classes to the democracy. During the
life of Pestalozzi one of the greatest political and social
revolutions in European history reached its climax.
Professor H. Morse Stephens writing on the period
1789-1815 entitles his book Revolutionary Europe. This
revolution was really the outcome of an intellectual
revolution.
With the revival of learning (1453) — the Renaissance
— there had come what may be called the democracy of
ideas. Learning was no longer the monopoly of a class,
but was open to all who had sufficient ability, leisure
and means. And there was such a high and noble
enthusiasm for " knowledge for its own sake " that we
find the more generous souls desired that all, even the
poorest, should partake of it. Erasmus (1467-1536)
wished that the Scriptures should ^be translated into
every language and given to all : " I wish that the weak-
est woman might read the Gospels and the Epistles
4 PESTALOZZI.
of St. Paul. ... I long for the day when the husband-
man shall sing portions of them to himself as he
follows the plough, when the weaver shall hum them
to the tune of his shuttle, when the traveller shall
while away with their stories the weariness of his
journey."
The printing press (1438) — the very deus ex machina
of intellectual democracy — soon did for knowledge what
steam has done for trade : reduced time and distance
to their lowest terms in the intellectual commerce of
the people. Men no longer had to make long and weary
pilgrimages to the homes of learning: knowledge was
brought to their very doors. Often with less trouble
than was taken, formerly, to teach one pupil by the
voice, a teacher now taught thousands by the pen.
Little wonder therefore that old things began to pass
away and all things to become new. In the cultiva-
tion of ideas men discovered themselves, so to say, and
were no longer content to be the shadows and echoes
of the few in high places. They sought first to deliver
themselves from bondage and then to enter into posses-
sion of their own. This movement, which in the religi-
ous world led to the Reformation, in the political and
social world led to the advent of democratic forms of
government, and the spread of education.
Hobbes (1588-1679), the great English philosopher,
may be said to have started the political revolution from
the intellectual standpoint. He had endeavoured to
find the rational bases of social and political institutions
in Leviathan; and, in so doing, had founded a school
of thought which was to change the whole order of
things political in Europe. The central idea of his
political theory was that the State is based upon a
THE PHILOSOPHERS AS REVOLUTIONISTS. 5
voluntary covenant between those composing it, in
which they give up more or less of their individual
rights and powers in order to gain the advantages of
collective protection and progress. They, therefore,
establish a supreme authority ; but still keep the power
to resume their natural rights, if this authority fails to
secure for them what they have a right to expect.
Although Hobbes himself entirely believed in, and up-
held, the monarchical form of this supreme authority,
other great thinkers, such as Hooker, Locke and Syd-
ney, modified and expanded the principle — which was
known as that of Social Contract. Locke (1632-1704)
in his Treatise 07t Civil Government developed from this
principle the theory of constitutional government, based
on such grounds as : all men are originally free and
equal ; all should assist and help each other ; all the
goods of the earth are common to all, in the first
instance ; only personal labour can give any right of
"private property," and only in so far as there is
*' enough and as good left in common for others ".
The principles of liberty of thought, personal free-
dom and individual responsibility were becoming the
commonplaces of philosophy — and even philosophy had
become democratised ; for just as the great religious
reformers insisted that the Bible should be translated
into the speech of the people, so philosophers had begun
to write in a style which appealed to the average man.
Such great thinkers and writers as Voltaire, Montesquieu,
Rousseau, Spinoza, Liebnitz, Kant, Hume and others,
all contributed, by their writings, to the intellectual
revolution in Europe.
All this led to the ever-increasing belief that it was
through human reason that the Divine Will and its
6 PESTALOZZI.
laws were expressed ; and, therefore, that man himself
was the originator and founder of laws and institutions,
and was their master, not their slave. Whilst, during
the greater part of the eighteenth century, it was held
that government existed for the security and prosperity
of the governed, yet it was also held that it could not
be, and ought not to be, administered by the people.
But this latter notion was being denied ; and the French
Revolution was the articulate declaration of the belief
in the sovereignty of the people, i.e., government of the
people, for the people, and by the people. It must be
remembered that, throughout the century, the majority
of the peasants of Europe were, in effect, absolute serfs.
They were compelled to give so much time to working
for their lords that they had to cultivate their own land
by moonlight. They were not allowed to leave their
villages, or marry, without their lord's consent ; neither
could any of them learn a trade without permission.
They, therefore, were as the driest of dry tinder to the
sparks of the intellectual revolution which fell upon
them.
Speaking of the political theories which were then
" in the air," Mr. Lecky writes : " The true causes of
their mighty influence are to be found in the conditioti
of society. Formerly they had been advocated with a
view to special political exigencies, or to a single country,
or to a single section of society. For the first time, in
the eighteenth century, they penetrated to the masses of
the people, stirred them to their lowest depths, and
produced an upheaving that was scarcely less general
than that of the Reformation " {Rationalism in Europe),
Thus, though monarchs had never done so much, as
during this period, in the way of important civil re-
THE SWISS REVOLUTION. 7
forms, or been more earnest and zealous in promoting
the well-being of the lower classes ; yet the'people were
determined to abide by their own mistakes in self-gov-
ernment, rather than endure their present disabilities
and the dangers and risks of personal government —
however benevolent.
Such was what may be called the social and political
atmosphere in Europe, in general ; whilst in Switzer-
land, in particular, it was at one of its points of greatest
intensity. Though there were far more freemen than
bondmen amongst the peasants, yet they were obliged
to fight for their rights against two great anti-popular
influences in government, viz.^ '' Patriciates," and Guild
government *' by divine right ". During the latter part
of the sixteenth century, and onwards, in certain towns
and states '' it tacitly became the rule that appoint-
ments to positions in the councils should be held for
life, or even hereditary ; in Lucerne, for instance, the
son succeeded the father, and the brother the brother.
But when the end could not be attained lawfully, unlawful
means, such as bribery, were brought to bear. Thus
the burghers separated themselves into a distinct class,
with the sole and hereditary right of governing the
whole state. The road to government appointment was
totally barred to all who were not by birth freemen of
the city. ... A purely aristocratic system was gradu-
ally formed, or as it was called (after a like system of
Rome) a ' Patriciate '. In Fribourg, for instance, it
was determined in 1627 to exclude all families who were
not at that time within the pale of the council from
holding any public offices ; a ' secret chamber ' of
twenty-four members elected the great and small
councils and all government officials, and completed
8 PESTALOZZI.
itself; thus the poHtical rights were limited to only
seventy-one families. . . .
** From the end of the fifteenth century it became the
rule in Zurich and Bern to consult the peasantry and
advise w^ith them upon all important acts of govern-
ment, such as the declaration of war, the conclusion
of peace, alliances, taxes, etc. During the course of
the sixteenth century, however, the idea gradually
obtained that the authorities wielded the sword of pro-
tection and punishment in God's name, and that the
divine law required obedience from subjects in all
cases ... so [they] tried to destroy the influence of
the people, more especially after an exclusive ruling
faction had arisen within the cities themselves " (Dr.
Karl Dandliker, A Short History of Switzerland). The
result of this was that there were constant revolts of
the peasants. Such risings, being of small bodies in
different localities, were easily put down and the ring-
leaders severely punished. In 1653 the peasants made
common cause with one another and rose in rebellion.
This was known as the Peasants' War, and it ended
in their complete overthrow.
During the seventeenth century considerable material
progress took place. " Outwardly considered, the aris-
tocracy developed an appearance of no inconsiderable
prosperity, especially in administration. The general
conditions and necessities of the time led to many useful
institutions. ... In Bern, Zurich, Zug, Basel, and even
in Soleure, Lucerne, Stanz, etc., public almshouses, hos-
pitals, orphan asylums, improved houses of correction,
etc., were established. The governments of Zurich,
Bern, Basel and Zug made more extensive provision
than formerly for scholastic institutions, scientific col-
THE SWISS REVOLUTION. Q
lections and libraries, for commerce and industry. . . .
The authorities of the various states vied with one
another in their efforts to further the material welfare of
their subjects, in 'fatherly' fashion; to support them
in times of misfortune, of bad harvests, of famine, etc.,
and to check beggary, pauperism and such-like by
numerous mandates. Viewed externally, many parts of
Switzerland presented a more cheering appearance
than the numerous provinces of other lands, mostly
depopulated and devastated by war. . . .
" Once more for every ray of light there was a shadow ;
narrow-mindedness and bigotry reigned supreme, in a
way which it is now hardly possible to conceive. . . .
Higher schools were, indeed, provided, but on the other
hand hardly anything was done towards educating the
people. The teachers in the popular schools were
ignorant artisans, discharged soldiers, or uneducated
youths ; the education consisted merely in learning
mechanically by rote, and without understanding, re-
ligious matter out of the catechism and various devotional
books. By this means ignorance was systematically
cultivated, and the mind of the people was stifled rather
than awakened. Intellectual life was entirely under the
control of the authorities, secular and religious ; it was
feared that a liberal education might open the eyes of
the people. Writings which displeased the authorities,
even innocent poems and popular songs, were unhesi-
tatingly suppressed ; everything had to undergo the
censorship of severe masters " (Dr. K. Dandliker).
With the increased opportunities for the education of
the middle classes came that progress in ideas which
invariably precedes all great popular movements.
Albrecht von Haller roused patriotic discontent with
10 PESTALOZZI.
existing conditions, and a longing for better things,
with his poems The Alps, The Man of the World, and
Demoralisation. Young J. C. Lavater, of Zurich, com-
posed his Swiss Songs, in which he calls for unity in
the cause of national well-being. The songs soon be-
came the " songs of the people," being sung by men
and women, old and young, throughout the country.
Salomon Gessner, of Zurich, wrote Idylls, which were
very popular ; and in which he sang the joys of coun-
try life. Franz Urs Balthasar, of Lucerne, published
(1758) a work called The Patriotic Dreams of a Confederate
of a way to make young again the old Confederation, in
which he urges the founding of a national Swiss insti-
tute, in which the children of the aristocrats should be
educated in such a way that they would become good
citizens and capable politicians. Amongst other subjects,
history, politics and military science were to be taught.
Professor Bodmer, of Zurich, aroused an interest in
literature, amongst scholars and readers, by his publica-
tions and controversies with German writers. Societies
for artists, musicians, naturalists, farmers, etc. ; benefit
societies ; reading clubs, etc., were formed. Printing
presses became common and many books, magazines,
newspapers and pamphlets were published. Johann
von Miiller, of Schaffhausen, pubHshed (1780) the first
popular history of the Swiss. The country was a
meeting place for many of the great men of the day.
Voltaire, Ferney and Gibbon spent much time to-
gether at Lausanne ; whilst Klopstock, Wieland, Kleist,
Goethe, Fichte and other great German writers
often stayed at Zurich. No wonder that to people
suffering so much political and social oppression and
repression, and yet just beginning to enter into in-
ROUSSEAU'S INFLUENCE. 11
tellectual liberty and life, the political pamphlets and
books (from France and England) which preached the
sovereignty of the people, and the liberty of man, met
with a hearty welcome. Above all, that famous and
epoch-making work by Rousseau, Contrat Social (pub-
lished 1744), had a profound effect upon the reformers.
With all its glowing eloquence ; its human sympathy ;
its clear-cut and apparently conclusive arguments ; its
dogmatic definiteness ; and, first and foremost, its fit-
ness as argument — however specious and superficial
even as special pleading — for their purpose ; this book
came as an inspired revelation to the minds of its
readers.
As Mr. John Morley says, in his work on Rousseau,
in spite of its " shallowness [and] practical mischievous-
ness ... it was the match which kindled revolutionary
fire in generous breasts throughout Europe. . . . His
theory made the native land what it had been to the
citizens of earlier date, a true centre of existence, round
which all the interests of the community, all its pursuits,
all its hopes, grouped themselves with entire singleness
of convergence, just as a religious faith is the centre of
existence to a church." Further, it added to this "the
cardinal service of rekindling the fire of patriotism, the
rapid deduction from the doctrine of the sovereignty of
peoples of the great truth, that a nation with a civilised
polity does not consist of an order or a caste, but of the
great body of its members, the army of toilers who make
the most painful of the sacrifices that are needed for
the continuous nutrition of the social organisation. As
Condorcet put it, and he drew inspiration partly from
the intellectual school of Voltaire, and partly from the
social school of Rousseau, all institutions ought to
1 2 PESTALOZZI.
have for their aim the physical, intellectual and moral
amelioration of the poorest and most numerous class.
This is the People."
Commencing with a sentence, '* Man is born free,
and everywhere he is in chains " — which must have
thrilled the heart of every reformer — Rousseau professes
to prove to demonstration (in the Contrat Social) the
following principles : — (i) A society, community, or
state is the outcome of a social compact by which
men, freely and voluntarily, bind themselves to obey
" the general will " : " Each of us puts his person and
all his powers under the sovereign direction of the
general will ; and we receive every member as an in-
separable part of the whole ". This is for the purpose
of defending and protecting the person and property of
each. (2) The body thus formed is the sovereign power
— the sovereign and the body politic are one and the same
thing. Every member is a citizen in that he is a part of
the sovereign power, and a subject in that he owes
obedience to the laws made by, or through, the sovereign
power. (3) The sovereign power is inalienable and
indivisible, i.e., the sovereign power itself is not subject
to the laws it makes ; and the sovereign power cannot
exercise its legislative functions through one body and
its executive powers through another. (4) The general
will of the sovereign power in regard to a matter of
common interest is expressed in a law. Laws, there-
fore, cannot be made through any kind of representative
institution, since only the sovereign power (the whole
community) can possess the law-making power (the
general will). (5) All governmental machinery con-
stitutes the agents and go-betweens of the sovereign
power as a whole and its members as the parts ; to the
THE "CONTRAT SOCIAL". 1 3
end that civil and political freedom for each and all
may be properly maintained. The government may be
a monarchy, i.e., when there is one magistrate from
whom all the rest hold their authority ; an aristocracy,
i.e., when there are more simple citizens than magis-
trates ; or a democracy, i.e., when there are more citizen
magistrates than private citizens. (6) The sovereign
power should establish a purely civil profession of
religious faith, consisting of a belief in God : a future
state: happiness of the righteous and punishment of
the wicked : the sanctity of the social contract and the
laws.
Such is a brief and bald outline of the theory of the
Contrat Social, the book which was one of the more
immediate causes of the French Revolution, and which
had such a powerful influence upon its Swiss readers
that, in 1762, the government of Geneva caused a copy
of it to be publicly burnt. Pestalozzi has put on record
that he was himself greatly influenced by the reading
of the book ; and his own political wTitings plainly show
this. He, like other good patriots, did everything pos-
sible to bring about a better state of things.
The new spirit of national, as against state, patriotism
which was fast spreading found active expression in
and through the founding, in 1762, of the Helvetic Society.
This was largely due to the influence of Balthasar's
book ; and the society consisted of such zealous patriots
as Gessner, Hirzel and Iselin. Pestalozzi appears to
have been one of the earliest, if not one of the original
members. Both Catholics and Protestants worked to-
gether in this society. Soon all the most famous men
of both French and German Switzerland attended its
annual meetings; at which patriotism and national-
14 PESTALOZZI.
ism were fostered : corruption and extortion in public
life criticised and exposed : the moral improvement of
individual life urged : and the reform of education and
civic government advocated. The society offered prizes
for plans for the improvement of the educational system
of the country. It gave active encouragement to Dr.
Planta, who had started in 1761 a school, at Halden-
stein, on the lines of the Philanthropinists — who sought
to carry out Rousseau's principle of things instead of
words in teaching — through the sciences which helped
most frequently in the affairs of daily life. Dr. Planta
also sought to train his pupils in human fraternity,
patriotism and religious toleration. Many distinguished
men, who took foremost parts in the national reforms,
were educated in this school.
Meantime political struggles and revolts continued.
In one or two towns and cantons the artisans and
peasants succeeded in regaining some of their old rights
and privileges ; but in most cases all political agitations
and revolts were put down with an iron hand, and
many paid for their discontent with their lives. But
the people caught the fever of the French Revolution,
and, in 1798, the inhabitants of Pays de Vaud rose in
rebellion against the authority of the canton of Bern.
This rising led to others, and the peasants set to work
to overthrow the conditions of feudalism, and declared
themselves in favour of ''liberty, equality and fra-
ternity ". Their leaders appealed to France for aid.
This was given, with the result that, in 1798, thirteen
states were federated, and put under a representative
democracy. The government consisted of two cham-
bers : a senate and a greater council ; the executive was
a directory of ftve members and four ministers; and
"THE HELVETIC SOCIETY." 1 5
the judiciary was a high court. Lucerne was made the
capital.
One of the clauses of the new Helvetic Constitution
declared that education was the chief foundation of the
public welfare, and in itself of more value than mere
wealth. M. Albrecht Stapfer (of Brugg) — a man of en-
lightened views — was appointed Minister of Arts and
Sciences, and at once drew up an admirable scheme for
educational reform ; he himself holding that "spiritual
and intellectual freedom alone makes free". All the
cantons were to send him reports on their schools and
education, with suggestions for improvement. Federal
regulations were drawn up to secure a council of educa-
tion (seven members) in the chief town of each canton ;
a commissioner or inspector of schools ; and a training
college for teachers in each canton. He also provided
for the building of grammar-schools; proposed the
founding of a Swiss university ; arranged for the es-
tabHshment of a Swiss Society of Arts ; did all he could
to encourage the formation of literary societies ; and
endeavoured to preserve, and make public, monastic
libraries and collections. He was always the friend of
Pestalozzi and did much to help him.
Another man who did much for education at this time
was Pere Girard (1765-1850) of Fribourg. In 17981 he
published a Scheme for Education for all Helvetia, which
he addressed to M. Stapfer. Seven years later he was
appointed as head of the primary school at Fribourg.
Here he did a great work, basing his work upon the
theory that '* the only, the real people's school, is that
in which all the elements of study serve for the culture
of the soul, and in which the child grows better by the
things which he learns and by the manner in which he
l6 PESTALOZZI.
learns them ". All his school work centred round the
teaching of the mother-tongue, through which he
taught grammar (through lessons on things), logic,
ideas and literature. He set out his system in the
Educative Course in the Mother Tongue. Girard, like
Pestalozzi, was one of the educational reformers.
There was also Emmanuel de Fellenberg (1775-1846),
a man of noble birth and exalted character, who, after
holding high public offices and mixing much with the
people and their rulers, became convinced — through
reading Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude — that only
by improvement in early education could the character
of a people be made such that national greatness could
be secured. He thereupon consecrated himself and his
fortune to education ; being then thirty-one years of
age. His first step was to undertake the education of
his own children, with a few boys from abroad, at his
own house, on his estate at Hofwyl. Gradually he
increased the number of pupils ; but only by twos and
threes so that the general working should not be much
disturbed. These pupils were all of the patrician class.
Two years later, 1807, he set up a *' Poor School " or
*' Agricultural Institution " for destitute children. The
farm-house was used as a school, and Vehrli, the son of
a schoolmaster of Thurgovia, was specially trained by
Fellenberg (in his own house) to take charge of the
institution. The aim was to use agriculture as a means
of moral training for the poor ; and to make the institu-
tion thereby self-supporting. Vehrli left the table of
Fellenberg to share the straw beds and vegetable diet
of these poor scholars ; to be their fellow labourer on the
farm ; to join with them as a play-fellow in their games ;
and to be their teacher.
EMMANUEL PELLENBERG. 17
In 1823 a school for poor girls was built in the
garden of the mansion ; and Fellenberg's eldest daughter
took charge of it. Four years after (1827) another de-
velopment took place ; an intermediate school, or
" Practical Institution," was established. This was
for the children of the middle classes in Switzerland.
The pupils belonged to the families of men of business,
mechanics and professional men ; and they were taught
such subjects as were thought necessary for those who
were not intended for the professions of law, medicine
and theology. Buildings, furniture, diet and dress
were such as the pupils had been used to at home.
Two hours each day were given to manual labour on
the farm ; to gardening on a plot of their own ; to work
in the mechanic's shop ; and in household work, such
as taking care of rooms, books and tools.
Fellenberg has given his view of the aim of education
in these words: "The great object of education is to
develop all the faculties of our nature, physical, intel-
lectual and moral, and to endeavour to train and unite
them into one harmonious system, which shall form
the most perfect character of which the individual is
susceptible ; and thus prepare him for every period and
every sphere of action to which he may be called ".
His work attracted the attention of educators and
statesmen in Switzerland and throughout Europe.
Pupils were sent to him from Russia, Germany, France
and England. Deputations from foreign Governments,
and private individuals, visited Hofwyl to study the
methods and organisation employed.
Such was the spirit of the times — so far as so brief
an outline can suggest it — in which Pestalozzi lived
and worked. How far it formed him and how far he
2
1 8 PESTALOZZI.
influenced it can be, in some measure, estimated when
his Hfe and work have been considered. But we shall
understand each better in proportion as we know both.
It is worth while to note what was taking place
in other countries, in educational matters, during Pes-
talozzi's lifetime. Bell (1753-1832), Lancaster (1778-
1838), Robert Owen (1771-1858), Samuel Wilderspin
(1792-1866) and Miss Edgeworth (1767-1849) were do-
ing their work in Britain ; Jacotot (1770-1840), Madame
Necker de Saussure (1765-1841), Condorcet (1743-94)
were working in France; and Basedow (1723-90),
Oberlin (1740-1826) and Froebel (1782-1852) in Ger-
many.
The thought and work of such reformers in education
brought about the greatest possible changes in the
schools. They may be said to have done for educa-
tion what Bacon, Descartes, Locke and others did for
philosophy : they changed its main purpose from a theo-
logical and religious one to an intellectual and rational.
For the appeal to authority and tradition was substituted
an appeal to science and experiment. Rabelais and
Montaigne had done much to prepare the way for Rous-
seau ; whilst Pestalozzi did more than any man before
his time to put the best ideas into practical form. In all
spheres of thought the principle of following Nature and
Reason was beginning to become predominant at this
period, and it was applied, for the first time, to education.
Men were freeing themselves from the bondage of verbal-
ism and entering into the full freedom of realism, both
in thought and action.
CHAPTER II.
EARLY YEARS AND EDUCATION.
John Henry Pestalozzi was born at Zurich on the
I2th of January, 1746. His father was a doctor, an
able man, but one who had not the art, or the will,
for achieving practical success in life. He died when
Pestalozzi was only six years of age, and left the
family in very straitened circumstances. The widow,
with her two boys and a girl, was helped by members
of the Pestalozzi family, and managed, thanks to this
help and the cheapness of the best schooling in Zurich, to
give her children a good education. In all her domestic
trials and struggles she was most loyally and devotedly
supported by a faithful servant named Babeli. When
on his deathbed Pestalozzi's father had sent for this
girl, in whom he must have had the greatest confidence
and trust, and said to her : " Babeli, for the sake
of God and mercy, do not leave my wife ; when I am
dead she will be forlorn, and my children will fall into
strange and cruel hands ". Babeli replied : " I will
not leave your wife when you die ; I will remain with
her till death, if she has need of me ". This promise
she fulfilled to the letter.
Not only did she sternly second the mother's strict
economies, but she did everything she could to nourish
in the mind of her young master that feeling of honest
19 2 *
20 PESTALOZZI.
independence which prevailed in those days almost with
the intensity of a passion. On this point she would
thus address him : '' Never, never has a Pestalozzi
eaten the bread of private compassion since Zurich was
a city. Submit to any privation rather than dishonour
your family. Look at those children (she would say as
the poor orphans of Zurich passed the windows), how
unfortunate would you be were it not for a tender
mother, who denies herself every comfort that you may
not become a pauper." She would often keep the chil-
dren indoors when they wished to go out, saying to
them : '' Why will you needlessly wear out your shoes
and clothes ? See how much your mother denies herself
in order to be able to give you an education ; how for
weeks and months she never goes out anywhere, but
saves every farthing for your schooling." Their mother
was, however, liberal in spending on such things as
were needed to keep up their social position ; the
children had handsome Sunday clothes, but they had to
take them off immediately they returned to the house.
The tender, affectionate and self-sacrificing mother,
and the faithful and sturdy maid devoted themselves
wholly to the good of the children. But this loving
devotion was not without its drawbacks for Pestalozzi.
As he himself says : " I was brought up by the hand
of the best of mothers like a spoilt darling, such that
you will not easily find a greater. From one year to
another I never left the domestic hearth ; in short, all
the essential means and inducements to the develop-
ment of manly vigour, manly experience, manly ways
of thinking, and manly exercises were just as much
wanting to me as, from the peculiarity and weakness of
my temperament, I especially needed them." As one
SCHOOL LIFE. 21
of his biographers, Dr. Biber, remarks : " The influ-
ence which he enjoyed at home operated powerfully
upon the growth of his feelings and, in the absence of
an equally efficacious cultivation of his intellect, gave
to his character that intense energy, uncontrolled by
clearness of judgment, which, while it prepared for him
many a grievous disappointment in the long course of
his philanthropic career, gave also to his soul that un-
abated elasticity to rise, after every downfall, with re-
novated strength ".
He was first sent to a day-school, then to a grammar-
school, where he was kept under the bondage of rigorous
discipline and uninteresting tasks, and finally he passed
to a college where youths received due preparation for
the learned professions. It is not surprising, in view of
what we are told of his home training, to find him
writing of his early school-days thus : " In all boys'
games I was the most clumsy and helpless among all
my fellow scholars, and nevertheless, in a certain way,
I always wanted to excel the others. This caused some
of them very frequently to pass their jokes upon me.
One of them gave me the nickname ' Harry Oddity of
Foolstown '. Most of them, however, liked my good-
natured and obliging disposition, though they knew my
general clumsiness and awkwardness, as well as my
carelessness and thoughtlessness, in everything that did
not particularly interest me.
"Accordingly, although one of the best pupils, I
nevertheless committed with incomprehensible thought-
lessness faults of which not even the worst of them was
ever guilty. While, I generally seized with quickness
and accuracy upon the essential matter of the subjects
gf instruction^ I was very generally indifferent and
22 PESTALOZZI.
thoughtless as to the forms in which it was given. At
the same time that I was far behind my fellow scholars
in some parts of a subject, in other parts of the same
subject I often surpassed them in an unusual degree. . . .
The wish to be acquainted with some branches of know-
ledge that took hold on my heart and my imagination,
even though I neglected the means of acquiring them,
was nevertheless enthusiastically alive within me ; and,
unfortunately, the tone of public instruction in my
native town at this period was in a high degree calculated
to foster this visionary fancy of taking an active interest
in, and believing oneself capable of the practice of things
in which one had by no means had sufficient exercise,
and this fancy was very prevalent among the youth of
my native town generally."
Though he seldom, because of a want of inclination
and physical capacity, joined in the games and pursuits
of his fellows, yet he did not withdraw himself from his
schoolmates in any morose or selfish spirit. He was
always frank, kind-hearted and willing to be helpful,
though he was the butt for boyish jokes. Indeed, on
one occasion at least his courage and comradeship
proved superior to that of the others. In the severe
earthquake of 1755 the school-house in which he was
taught was severely shaken. A panic was caused and
the teachers and scholars rushed out of the school, the
former ''almost over the heads of their boys". After
they had recovered from their first terror they wished to
obtain the books, hats and other property which they
had left behind ; but being unwilling to venture into the
building they persuaded " Harry Oddity " to undertake
the task.
When he was nine years old he began to pay an
THE SCHOOLS OF HIS TIME. 2$
annual holiday visit to his grandfather, who was pastor
of Hongg, in the canton of Zurich. These visits lasted
for several months each year, and doubtless had some
influence in moulding the lad's character and determin-
ing his views, for his grandfather was an excelle^it type
of village pastor. He took the closest interest in every-
thing that concerned the welfare of his flock, and more
especially in the village school. Pestalozzi would, dur-
ing his visits, see a good deal of the sufferings of the
poor, and of the good which a benevolent and zealous
helper could do amongst them. Of his grandfather's
school he writes, in his last years : " His school, how-
ever defective it might be in point of method, was in
living connection with the moral life and the home
education of the people, and this combined education
cultivated successfully and thoroughly the practice of
habits of attention, obedience, industry and effort ; in
short, laid the fundamental foundations of education ''
(Swan's Song).
Doubtless he would see many other schools in his
early years ; and they must have influenced his mind very
much. One writer thus describes the ordinary Swiss
school of those days: "The instruction was generally
given in the schoolmaster's only living room, while his
family were carrying on their household avocations. In
places where there were schoolrooms, they were never
large enough to provide sufficient space for all the
children to sit down. The rooms were low and dark,
and when the door was opened the oppressive fumes of
a hot and vitiated atmosphere met the visitor ; closely
crammed together sat the children, to the ruin of their
health, breathing in the foul and heated vapours. The
stoves, too, were generally overheated, and the closed
24 PESTALOZZI.
windows were darkened by the steam from the breath
of so many human beings ; so crowded together were
they, that if one wished to leave or return to his place,
he must climb over chairs and tables to do so.
** The noise was deafening ; the schoolmaster had little
authority over his pupils ; there was no fixed age at which
children were either sent or withdrawn ; parents would
frequently send them at four or five, and take them away
as soon as they could earn any money, generally in
their eighth or ninth year. The instruction was bad and
irregular. A child who could say the whole catechism
through was considered clever, but one who could repeat
the iigth Psalm and a few chapters of the Bible by heart,
was looked upon as a real marvel. The more that could
be said by rote, the greater pleased were the parents" (F.
E. Cooke, Guiding Lights').
Morf, a biographer of Pestalozzi, collected informa-
tion about the teachers and schools of Pestalozzi's times.
The teachers were very ignorant, often poor working
men who kept school to increase their small earnings in
other occupations. Of the schools Morf says : ''We find
hardly any trace of a proper schoolroom. The choice of
a teacher often depended, not on his ability, but on his
having a room — his family remained in it and carried
on their domestic duties during school hours. Often
neighbours brought their spinning wheels, finding more
warmth and entertainment than at home. . . .
'* Reading and learning by heart were the pupils' only
tasks. The big ones were learning aloud, so there was
a constant hubbub in the school. Class teaching was
not thought of."
Of the way in which schoolmasters were appointed,
Kriisi, Pestalozzi's first assistant, gives a very interesting
THE SCHOOLS OF HIS TIME. 2$
account. Kriisi, as a lad and when a young man, earned
his living by travelling about the country buying and
selling small wares. One summer day as he was cross-
ing a mountain, carrying a heavy load of thread, he met
M. Gruber, the State Treasurer, and this conversation
took place : —
*' ' It's very hot, Hermann,' " said Kriisi.
" ' Yes, very hot.'
** ' As Hoerlin, the schoolmaster, is leaving Gais you
might perhaps earn your living less laboriously. Would
you not like to try for this post ? '
'' ' It is not simply a question of what I would like :
a schoolmaster ought to have knowledge of matters of
which I am wholly ignorant.'
" ' You could easily learn, at your age, all that a school-
master there ought to know.'
'' ' But where and how ? I do not see any possibility
of this.'
" ' If you have any inclination for it, the way can easily
be found. Think about it, and do not delay.'
" Upon this he left me.
'' I considered and reflected, but no light seemed to
come to me. However I rapidly descended the moun-
tain hardly feeling the weight of my load.
*' My friend Sonderegger procured a single specimen
of writing, done by a skilful penman of Altstatten, and
I copied it over a hundred times. This was my only pre-
paration. Nevertheless, I sent in my name, but with
little hope of success.
''There were only two candidates. The chief test
consisted in writing out the Lord's Prayer, which I did
with all the care of which I was capable.
" I had carefully noticed that capitals were used here
26 PESTALOZZI.
and there, but as I was ignorant of the rule I had taken
them for ornament. Accordingly I distributed mine in a
symmetrical manner, with the result that some came in
the very middle of words. As a matter of fact neither
of us knew anything.
" When the examination was over, I was sent for and
Captain Schgepfer announced to me that the examiners
had found us both very weak ; that my competitor could
read the better, but that I was the better writer ; that
as I was only eighteen years old, while the other was
forty, I should be better able to acquire the necessary
knowledge ; that, moreover, my room, being bigger than
that of the other applicant, was more suitable for a
schoolroom ; and, in short, I was nominated to the
vacant post." So Kriisi's room was cleared of some old
furniture, and a hundred children were put into it. This
was in 1793.
While at college Pestalozzi came under the teach-
ing of men who exercised a great influence upon him,
viz., Bodmer, the Professor of History, and Breitinger,
the Professor of Greek and Hebrew; and he had as
his contemporaries Lavater, Iselin, the Eschers and
others whose names are connected with the national
history of this period. Of the teaching he says : " In-
dependence, freedom, beneficence, self-sacrifice and pa-
triotism were the watchwords of our public education.
But the means of attaining all this which was par-
ticularly commended to us — mental distinction — was left
without solid and sufficient training of the practical
ability which is its essential condition.
" We were taught, in a visionary manner, to seek for
independence in an abstract acquaintance with truth,
without being made to feel strongly what was essentially
HIS COLLEGE LIFE. 27
necessary to the security both of our inward and of our
outward domestic and civil independence. The tone
of the instruction which we received led us, with much
vivacity and many attractive representations, to be so
short-sighted and inconsiderate as to set little value
upon, and almost to despise, the external means of
wealth, honour and consideration. This was carried
to such an extent that we imagined, while we were yet
in the condition of boys, that, by a superficial school-
acquaintance with the great civil life of Greece and
Rome, we could eminently prepare ourselves for the
little civil life in one of the Swiss cantons."
During his college course, and when only fifteen years
of age, he joined a branch of the Helvetic Society, which
had been started by Lavater, and had amongst its
m.embers such men as Schinz, Fiissli and Escher. The
aim of these young men was to begin immediate reforms
in the territory of Zurich ; and to support the down-
trodden and poor in their demands for the extension of
the rights of the people. The society met weekly, and
chiefly occupied itself in debating Rousseau's political
ideas. But they by no means confined themselves to
talk. They founded a weekly journal called Der Erin-
nerer, in 1765, wherein they gave publicity to their
views ; and did not hesitate to attack, in the most
frank and fearless manner, public abuses, dishonest and
tyrannical ofiicials, worthless ministers, and any person
or practice which seemed to them to stand in need of
reform.
Pestalozzi, then only nineteen years of age, wrote
articles for this magazine. Amongst* other ideas he
expressed in this paper were the following : '' A young
man who plays such a small part in his country as I
28 PESTALOZZI.
do, has no right to criticise, or to suggest improve-
ments ; at least people tell me this nearly every da)^ of
my life. But at any rate I may be allowed to express
my wishes . . . that no eminent man may think it
beneath his dignity to work with untiring courage for
the public good ; that no one may look down with con-
tempt on his fellow-creatures of inferior station, if they
are really faithful and industrious men . . . that some-
one may publish a little collection of the principles
of education, sound and simple, so that the average
townsman, or the average countryman, could understand
them ; and that some generous individuals would dis-
tribute this little book free of charge, or at the price of
a half-penny, so that all the clergy both in town and
country might circulate and recommend it ; and finally,
that all parents who read it, might act in accordance
with such wise rules of Christian education." The
ardent spirits who thus criticised their pastors and
masters soon got into trouble. The paper was sup-
pressed ; one young theologian had to flee from Zurich ;
and Pestalozzi was arrested, with several others, and
condemned to pay the costs of an action.
Of the actual influence of Rousseau's writings upon
himself Pestalozzi says: "The moment Rousseau's
Entile appeared, my visionary and highly speculative
mind was enthusiastically seized by this visionary and
highly speculative book. I compared the education
which I enjoyed in the corner of my mother's parlour,
and also in the school which I frequented, with what
Rousseau demanded for the education of his Emilius.
The home as well as the public education of the whole
world, and of all ranks of society, appeared to me alto-
gether as a crippled thing, which was to find a universal
INFLUENCED BY ROUSSEAU. 29
remedy for its present pitiful condition in Rousseau's
lofty ideas. The ideal system of liberty, also, to which
Rousseau imparted fresh animation, increased in me the
visionary desire for a more extended sphere of activity,
in which I might promote the vv^elfare and happiness of
the people. Juvenile ideas as to what it v^as necessary
and possible to do in this respect in my native town,
induced me to abandon the clerical profession, to which
I had formerly leaned, and for which I had been de-
stined, and caused the thought to spring up vv^ithin me,
that it might be possible, by the study of law, to find a
career that would be likely to procure for me, sooner or
later, the opportunity and means of exerting an active
influence on the civil condition of my native town, and
even of my native land."
One writer (Henning) says that Pestalozzi once told
him that his heart was so filled, in his youth, with
enthusiasm for patriotism and zeal for the rights of the
oppressed, that he earnestly strove to think out any
and every means of deliverance for the poor and down-
trodden ; and so desperate was he for something effectual
to be done, that he might easily have become persuaded
that the killing of despots was no murder. Fortunately
he was content to try more sensible and successful
methods.
No doubt his resolve to forego the ministry was, to
some extent at least, due to the fact that on his ap-
pearance as a candidate he was unable to say the Lord's
Prayer correctly, and broke down three times in his
sermon. In his study of law he seems to have followed
the characteristic bent of his mind and character, and
was more concerned to learn of the principles and
methods of good government than the way to win cases.
30 PESTALOZZI.
This is shown by an essay on the constitution of Sparta
and a translation of some of Demosthenes' orations,
which he published at the time ; and which also show
his thoroughness in research and his proficiency in
classical learning.
The more he got to know of the highest ideals of
those principles of freedom and justice which should
control individual and national life, the more clearly he
saw the shortcomings and evils of the life around him.
He saw that the education and training, both at school
and in practical life, of those who filled the highest
offices — ^judges, ministers and public officials of all
kinds — were quite unsuited to fit them for their work ;
and that the corruption and fraud which arose chiefly
from their incompetence degraded and despoiled the
common people. He expressed his views in an essay
on the relation which education ought to bear to the
various professions and callings. This was published
while he was still a student at law.
He appears to have written a good deal on various
subjects dealing with law and politics ; and he also
collected extensive materials for a book on the history
of law and politics in Switzerland. Hard and unre-
mitting study, and the mental stress of his intellectual
struggles proved too much for his constitution, already
impaired by the excessive demands he had made upon
it by reason of the zeal and intensity with which he
took up and carried out his ideas. Among other things
he had thrown himself whole-heartedly into the general
enthusiasm of the reformers for the revival of agriculture
as a means for the salvation of the poor, and the remedy
for all evils. Stirred by the teachings of Bodmer and
the writings of Rousseau, many of the best students in
BREAKDOWN IN HEALTH. 3 1
the college learnt farming and practised the simple life.
Writing to a friend, in the autumn of 1765, Bodmer says
of them: ''they have already learned to mow, and to
bear heat, perspiration and rain with the peasants ".
Pestalozzi is said to have practised vegetarianism ; to
have slept, unclothed, on the floor of his room ; and even
to have whipped himself till he bled, to fit himself to
undergo any suffering that might be necessary. Little
wonder that he became seriously ill, and exhausted in
body and mind.
CHAPTER III.
THE BEGINNING OF HIS LIFE-WORK.
Advised by his doctor to give up study for a time and to
recuperate in the country ; and inspired by Rousseau to
return to the life of nature ; Pestalozzi renounced the
study of books for ever, committed all his manuscripts
to the flames, and took to farming. He went to Kirch-
berg, in the canton of Bern, and apprenticed himself
to a farmer named Tschiffeli, a man who had a great
reputation for his knowledge and skill in farming, and
for his keen interest in the welfare of the farm workers.
An out-door life, healthy and regular work, the quiet and
calm of country life, peaceful meditation, and inter-
course with nature and men of simple habits, soon
restored him to sound health and to that childlike
simplicity of thought and conduct which had distin-
guished him as a boy. From Tschiffeli he learnt much.
** I had come to him," he says, " a political visionary,
though with many profound and correct attainments,
views and prospects in political matters ; and I went
away from him just as great an agricultural visionary,
though with many enlarged and correct ideas and inten-
tions in regard to agriculture. My stay with him only
had this effect : that the gigantic views in relation to
my exertions were awakened within me afresh by his
agricultural plans, which, though difficult of execution,
32
BECOMES A FARMER. 33
and in part impracticable, were bold and extensive ; and
that at the same time they caused me, in my thought-
lessness as to the means of carrying them out, to fall
into a callousness the consequences of which contri-
buted in a decisive manner to the pecuniary embarrass-
ment into which I was plunged the very first years of
my rural life."
In 1767, at the age of twenty-two, he resolved to
start a farm for himself. With a small legacy from his
father and some capital advanced by a banker in Zurich,
he bought about 100 acres of waste land near Birrfeld,
in the canton of Argovie, not far from Zurich, and
began to cultivate vegetables and madder. He called
his place Neuhof, i.e., new farm. Two years later he
married Anna Schulthess, a woman beautiful alike in
character and person, and one who for fifty years adorned
his triumphs as worthily as she bore his misfortunes
heroically.
During the year 1770 a son was born to them. This
they esteemed the highest possible blessing, and the
greatest possible responsibility. Pestalozzi appears to
have tried to follow out Rousseau's ideas in the educa-
tion of his boy, Jacobli ; and he kept a diary of his and
the child's progress. Herein we see the first definite
beginnings and developments of Pestalozzi's theories of
education. A few extracts will show the general char-
acter and tendency of his efforts : —
''Jan. 27, 1774. —I drew his attention to some
water which ran swiftly down a decline. He was de-
lighted. I walked a little lower down, and he followed
me, saying to the water : ' Wait a minute : I shall
come back soon'. Shortly afterwards I took him to
the bank of the same stream again ; and he exclaimed :
3
34 PESTALOZZI.
' Look, the water comes down, too ; it runs from up
there and goes down and down'. As we followed the
course of the stream, I repeated several times to him :
* Water flows from the top to the bottom of the hill '.
" I told him the names of several animals, saying :
' The dog, the cat, etc., are animals ; but your uncle,
John, and Nicholas, are men.' I then asked him :
' What is a cow, a sheep, the minister, a goat, your
cousin ? ' etc. He answered rightly nearly every time,
his wrong answers being accompanied by a sort of
smile which suggested that he did not intend to answer
properly. I think that behind this fun there must be a
wish to show his independence of will.
"Feb. I. — I taught him the Latin names for the
various exterior parts of the head. By figures and ex-
amples I taught him the meaning of words like inside,
outside, below, above, amidst, beside, etc. I showed
him how snow turned into water when brought indoors.
" I found that teaching was made easier by changes of
the voices, i.e., by speaking now loud, now soft, now on
one note and then on another. But to what might this
not lead ?
" Feb. 2. — I tried to get him to understand the
meaning of numbers. At present he knows their names,
which he says by heart without attaching any exact
meaning to them. To have a knowledge of words with
no distinct ideas of the things they stand for immensely
increases the difficulty of getting to know the truth.
The most ignorant man would have been struck by this
fact if he had been present at our lesson. The child
had been so used to not associating any difference of
meaning with the different names of numbers, that
this had produced 'm him a habit of inattention which
CHILD-STUDY. 35
I have not been able to overcome in the slightest
degree.
" Why have I been so foolish as to allow him to pro-
nounce these important words without taking care to
connect them, at the same time, with a clear idea of
their meaning ? Would it not have been more natural
never to make him say ' three,* before he thoroughly
knew the number two in all possible examples ; is it
not in this way that he ought to be taught to count ?
Ah ! how much I have departed from the paths of
nature in trying to forestall her teaching. O truths
so important for wisdom and virtue ! teach me to be
upon my guard !
" Allow yourself to be guided by the child's propensity
for imitation. You have a stove in your room : draw
it for him. Even if he should not succeed for a whole
year in exactly tracing the four corners, at least he will
have learned to sit still and to work. The comparison
of mathematical figures and magnitudes is, at the same
time, a pleasant matter, and an instruction in judgment.
" Again, to have his own garden, and to get together
therein all sorts of plants ; to collect butterflies and
insects, and to make an orderly classification of them,
with exactness and perseverance — what a preparation
for social life ! What a safeguard against idleness and
stupidity ! And how far all this is from our ordinary
teaching which is so little suited to children, who ought
to learn first to read the book of nature !
" Feb. 14. — To-day I am satisfied : he learnt willingly.
I have played with him : I have been horseman, butcher,
everything he wished.
" I drew some straight lines for him to copy. Fiissli,
the painter, said to me : All that you do should be done
3 *
36 PESTALOZZI.
thoroughly ; do not pass from a to 6, until a is perfectly
known, and so with all. Be in no haste to advance, but
stay at the first step until that is thoroughly well done ;
thus you will avoid confusion and waste. That all
should be complete, that all should be in order, not the
least bit of confusion — think how important !
" Since it is nature that gives us our first language :
is she not able to give us ten languages in the same
manner ? I perceive that I am not following closely
enough the course of nature in the teaching of language.
It is necessary that I should further accustom myself
always to speak Latin.
" Feb. 15. — Lead your child by the hand to the great
scenes of nature ; teach him on the mountain and in
the valley. There he will listen better to your teaching ;
the liberty will give him greater force to surmount
difficulties. But in these hours of liberty it should be
nature that teaches rather than you. Do not allow
yourself to prevail for the pleasure of success in your
teaching; or to desire in the least to proceed when
nature diverts him ; do not take away in the least the
pleasure which she offers him. Let him completely
realise that it is nature that teaches, and that you, with
your art, do nothing more than walk quietly at her side.^
When he hears a bird warble, or an insect hum on a
leaf, then cease your talk ; the bird and the insect are
teaching; your business is then to be silent.
" But in the few hours of study when steady work
is necessary to acquire necessary knowledge, no inter-
ruption should be allowed. These hours ought to be few
in number, but nothing should be permitted to inter-
rupt them. In this matter it is absolutely necessary to
go contrary to the natural bent for liberty.
CHILD-STUDY. 37
" Nothing produces such bitter feeling as the punish-
ment of ignorance as a fault. In punishing an inno-
cent child we lose our hold on the heart. We must not
suppose that a child knows of himself what is harmful
and what in our eyes is serious.
" Plenty of joy and liberty and only a few occasions
when the child is obliged to fight against and overcome
his natural desires, will give strength and courage to en-
dure. Too much restraint lowers courage, and the
times of joy which take its place will fail of their happy
influence. The strongest and most frequent impres-
sions are those which determine character, for they
dominate the others. Because of this it is possible to
correct defects by education.
" Feb. 16 and 17. — I have taught him to hold the
pencil. Though this be but a very small matter, I will
not permit him in future to hold it badly, in a single
instance."
"Feb. 19. — Liberty is a good thing; and obedience
is equally so. We should re-unite what Rousseau has
separated. Impressed by the evils of an unwise con-
straint that only tends to degrade humanity he has not
remembered the limits of liberty.
" Let us make use of the wisdom of his principles.
" Master ! be persuaded of the excellence of liberty.
Do not allow vanity to lead you astray and cause you
to seek to produce, by your efforts, premature fruits ; let
your child be as free as possible ; seek diligently for
every means of leaving him free, tranquil and good-
humoured. Teach him everything, absolutely every-
thing, that is possible through the realities of the very
nature of things ; teach him nothing through words.
Leave him to himself to see, to hear, to find out, to
58 PESTALOZZI.
stumble, to recover, and to make mistakes. No words
when action, when doing a thing for himself, is possible !
What he can do for himself, let him do it ; so that he
may always be occupied, always active, and that the
time during which he is left to himself may be much
the greater part of his childhood. You should recognise
that nature teaches better than men. . . .
" He must trust you. If he frequently asks for some-
thing you do not think good, tell him what the conse-
quences will be, and leave him his liberty ; but arrange
it so that the consequences shall be impressive. Al-
ways show him the right way ; if he departs from it,
and falls into the mire, pull him out of it. Thus he will
find himself in very disagreeable positions through not
having profited by your warnings, and through having
enjoyed complete liberty. In this way his trust in you
will be such that he will not feel hurt when you are
obliged to restrain his liberty by a prohibition. It is
necessary for him to be obedient to a wise master or
the father who gives good advice ; but only in cases of
necessity ought the master to prescribe things."
In these reflections we may clearly see the definite
beginnings of his ideas on : — things before words ; follow-
ing nature ; observation and nature study ; self-activity
and thoroughness ; language teaching ; number teach-
ing ; character training ; and orderly development.
While he was thus trying to fulfil the duties of the
parent-educator, and perhaps in some measure because
of this, his worldly affairs were going from bad to worse.
Bad soil, a faithless steward, and lack of practical ability
brought matters to a crisis. The banker who had ad-
vanced capital to Pestalozzi withdrew it. However
the relatives of Pestalozzi's wife came to the rescue,
THE NEUHOF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. 39
and he was enabled to carry on his farm ; and also to
try to improve matters by doing a little in the way of
weaving and spinning cotton. But in spite of all his
endeavours matters continued to go wrong.
But his own troubles only served to make him think
more about the sufferings of others. He asked himself
what had become of all his thoughts about improving
the lot of the poor. How was such work to be done ?
He had now obtained actual knowledge of the life and
habits of the peasantry, and had made up his mind that
reform and progress must come, first and foremost, from
within an individual rather than from without, and from
the young rather than from their elders. He resolved,
therefore, to begin with the most destitute and degraded
children ; to educate them, in the first place, through
their feelings, their ordinary work, and domestic life :
and to aim at making them self-respecting and self-
dependent. His wife entirely agreed with him.
At this period it was a common practice to hand
over orphans or foundlings to the care of farmers and
peasants, who, ignorant and selfish, cared for nothing
except getting all the profit they could out of the
arrangement. The children were made to work very
hard ; received no, or bad, education ; and were often
forced to become common beggars, for the advantage of
their degraded guardians. Here was work meet for him ;
and he resolved to get together such waifs and castaways
and give them an industrial, moral and intellectual
education. The children were to do something towards
earning their keep by working in his spinning-mill. His
aim was "to call forth, and put into action, the power
every human being possesses of satisfying his needs
and doing his duty in his state of life ". His ideas were
40 PESTALOZZI.
approved by, and he received every encouragement and
help from, his friends Pastor Schinz (of Zurich), Lavater,
FussH, IseHn (registrar of Basle), and other influential
persons.
Of this purpose of theirs he says : " My wife had much
to suffer because of our position ; nevertheless nothing
could shake, either in her or in me, the intention to
consecrate our time, our strength, and the remainder of
our fortune to the simplification of the instruction and
the domestic education of the people" {Swan Song). So,
during the winter of 1774-75 they began their work.
Pestalozzi received at his house some children whom
he gathered together from the neighbourhood : little
mendicants whom he found in the villages and on the
roads. He clothed and fed them, and cared for them
with a father's affection. He had them always with
him, and let them take part in all his work in the
garden, on the farm, and in the house. In bad weather
they were occupied in spinning cotton in a large room
which formed one floor of his farmhouse. Only a very
short time was devoted to lessons, and often the instruc-
tion was given whilst the children were working with
their hands. He did not make haste to teach them to
read and to write, being persuaded that this talent was
of no use until they knew how to talk. But he un-
ceasingly occupied them in the exercise of language,
concerning subjects which were furnished by their own
life, and he made them repeat passages from the Bible
until they knew them by heart.
He finally had about twenty children. These made
great progress both in manual and mental work, and
developed most satisfactorily in morals and in health.
Many more were anxious to share in the advantages
THE NEUHOF INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. 4I
which were offered ; but Pestalozzi had already more
than his means allowed, though eagerly anxious to take
in others. The experiment attracted general attention,
and was highly approved and admired. Subscriptions
were offered him, and he was advised to make a public
appeal for support.
So Pestalozzi drew up, in 1776, an ''Appeal to the
friends and benefactors of humanity who may be willing
to support an institution designed to provide education
and work for poor country children ". After describing
how he had already proved the practicability and success
of reforming both the minds and morals of destitute and
degraded children, he gives the following undertaking,
provided that sufficient money is advanced to him :
" The money will be paid back in ten years. . . . The
number of children admitted shall be according to the
financial support given to me. I promise to teach all
the children to read, write and calculate. I promise to
initiate all the boys, so far as my knowledge and position
permit me, in all the practical processes of small farming.
I understand the means of cultivation which will, from
a small area of land, yield the most abundant products.
I promise to teach them how to lay down artificial
grass-land ; to look after and develop the fattening of
cattle ; to know by extensive experiments the different
grasses and the importance of their proper mixings;
the nature and the use of marl ; the effects, still disputed,
of the repeated use of Hme ; the management of fruit
trees, and, perhaps, of a few forest trees.
" All this will arise out of the position and needs of
my estate, so that such efforts will always be work
connected with the needs of the house, and not in the
least a study which necessitates unproductive outlay.
42 PESTALOZZI.
It will also be the household needs which will furnish
the young girls opportunity to learn gardening, domestic
work and needle-work. The principal occupation in
bad weather will be the spinning of fine cotton.
" I promise to give them religious instruction, con-
sidered as a matter of conscience, and to do all that in
me lies to develop in them a pure and tender heart."
He goes on to point out that the most gratifying
success has attended his experiment with the twenty
children he has already with him ; and states that he
will be personally responsible for all future charges
connected with them. He undertakes to make an
annual report of his work to the subscribers, and asks
that the work shall be inspected, and iio money given
to him unless he carries out his promises. After men-
tioning the names of well-known men who are support-
ing him, he makes a final appeal for the confidence and
support of all " friends of humanity ".
The response to this appeal was, on the whole,
satisfactory — the Council of Commerce of the Bern
Republic promised to help — and Pestalozzi was enabled
to go on with his work. In accordance with his pro-
mise to give his patrons a full account of his work
Pestalozzi wrote letters to the Ephemerides. In these
he sets forth his views as best way of reforming the
working classes, through the education of their children
in establishments which combine agriculture and manu-
facture for their training. He holds that such institu-
tions will be self-supporting, because of the earnings of
the children.
He says : " It is possible to improve their growth,
strength and health by a very simple and economical
diet ; for their nourishment consists [at Neuhof] almost
CHARACTER OF THE PUPILS AND THE WORK. 43
entirely of vegetables, though their work is most con-
stant and diligent. Nevertheless they are robust : the
strongest go about in the open bareheaded and without
shoes or stockings (Jacobli, the only son of the director,
is not treated differently). It is possible, in a short
time, to make them reasonably skilful in their work,
and at the same time to lead them to acquire such
school knowledge as is suitable to their position."
Even the weakest and most feeble-minded may be re-
deemed, if the director be a true father in his relations
to the children — but no other way will do — the children
be kept from the influence of their parents : and stay
in the institution for five or six years. Pestalozzi found
it necessary to have a written agreement with parents
as to the conditions of admission, so grossly did they
abuse the privileges of the institution.
The Bern Agricultural Society appointed some well-
known and competent men to inspect the establishment,
in 1778, and then issued a report in which they express
their full confidence in Pestalozzi and his work. The
report was issued as a pamphlet, which contained also
an account by Pestalozzi himself, with a detailed de-
scription of the thirty-seven pupils. These descriptions
give us some idea of the difficulties of the work; e.g.,
" They [two sisters, aged nineteen and eleven] came to
me three years ago, extremely neglected in body and
mind ; they had spent their lives in begging. We have
had indescribable trouble to implant the beginnings of
order, truthfulness and industry in them. The degree
of brutishness and ignorance in the elder passes all
belief, and her idleness is chronic. . . . Henri Vogt, of
Mandach, eleven ; has been here three years ; can weave
well : has begun to write : works well at French and
44 PESTALOZZI.
arithmetic : is exact and careful in everything ; but
his heart seems to me to be cunning, deceitful, suspici-
ous and greedy ; he has good health. . . . Maria Bsechli,
eight ; excessively feeble in intelligence and body. But
it will be very very interesting for humanity to see that
imbecile children, roughly brought up, who would have
had no resource except the madhouse, may be, by
affectionate attentions appropriate to their feebleness,
saved from this misery, and enabled to secure a modest
livelihood and an independent life. . . . Henri Fuchsli,
of Brugg, seven ; has only been here a few weeks ; seems
gifted."
The staff is thus described by Pestalozzi : " For the
conduct of the establishment and in the interests of
the children, I get the most valuable assistance from
Mile. Madelon Spindler, of Strasbourg, who possesses
extraordinary ability and astonishing activity. I have,
besides, a master for weaving, and two experienced
weavers ; a mistress for spinning, and two young women
spinners ; a man who with the work of winding com-
bines the teaching of elementary reading, as well as
two menials and two women-servants almost wholly
occupied in farm -work."
In spite of all his hopes and efforts Pestalozzi's un-
practical nature again betrayed him, and financial diffi-
culties once more assailed him. He tried to find a
remedy for this by considerably increasing the number
of children ; but this only increased the evil. Parents
who were themselves common beggars complained most
bitterly against him, and persuaded their children to
run away — so that they might enjoy the earnings that
the training and skill they got from Pestalozzi would
enable them to obtain — but not before they had got a
CAUSES OF FAILURE. 45
new suit of clothes at the institution. Untrue and
unfair reports were circulated, came to the ears of
subscribers, and led to the falling off of subscriptions.
And all this whilst Pestalozzi continued to admit
children who arrived covered with rags and vermin,
whom he made clean and comfortable ; he himself
partaking of the same kind of food as they had, except
that he gave them the best potatoes whilst keeping the
worst for himself.
" Every Sunday," he says, " my house was filled with
parents, who finding that the position of their children
did not answer to their expectations, and as though to
encourage them in their discontent, treated me with all
the arrogance which a horde of brutish mendicants can
allow themselves in an establishment which enjoyed
neither official support nor imposing exterior."
Still Pestalozzi struggled on, battling with ill-health
and worse fortune, but nobly encouraged and supported
by his faithful wife. When too late he called in the
help of able and experienced men. But matters were
past mending, and after two years of painful perseverance,
when husband and wife had spent their last strength and
their last shilling, the end came. The establishment
was closed in 1700.
Pestalozzi, though still the owner of house and farm,
was, in effect, as poor as the beggars for whom he had
beggared himself. Again his friends and relations came
to his rescue and kept his home together. But his wife's
bad health, and his own exhausted condition, left them in-
capable of helping themselves, and soon they were with-
out food, fuel, or money, and suffering from cold and
want.
Their sad condition called forth an act of heroic de-
46 PESTALOZZI.
votion on the part of a domestic servant, Elizabeth Naef,
of Kappel, who knew Pestalozzi through having been in
the service of one of his relatives. When she heard of
their distress she straightway went to Neuhof and in-
sisted upon succouring them. Pestalozzi tried hard to
dissuade her from sharing their sufferings, but she would
not be denied. She set the house in order, put the
garden straight, cultivated a small plot of land, and by
good management and incessant labour kept the wolf
from the door. Well might Pestalozzi take her as his
model for the noble Gertrude.
Nearly twenty years after he thus wrote of his aims
and his work for the children at Neuhof: ''The thing
was not that they should know what they did not know,
but that they should behave as they did not behave. . . .
I lived for years together in a circle of more than fifty
pauper children ; in poverty did I share my bread with
them, and lived myself like a pauper, to try if I could
teach paupers to live as men. The plan which I had
formed for their education embraced agriculture, manu-
facture and commerce. In no one of the three de-
partments did I possess any practical ability for the
management of details, nor was my mind cast to keep
up persevering attention to little things ; and in an
isolated position, with limited means, I was unable to
procure such assistance as might have made up for my
own deficiencies. In a short time I was surrounded with
embarrassments and saw the great object of my wishes
defeated. In the struggle, however, in which this at-
tempt involved me, I had learned a vast deal of truth,
and I was never more fully convinced of the importance
of my views and plans than at the moment when they
seemed to be for ever set at rest by a total failure. . . .
FAILURE AND HEROISM. 47
Before I was aware of it I was deeply involved in debt,
and the greater part of my dear wife's property and ex-
pectations had in an instant, as it were, gone up in
smoke. . . .
" Difficulties might gradually have been more or less
overcome if I had not sought to carry out my experi-
ment on a scale that was quite disproportioned to my
strength, and had I not with almost incredible thought-
lessness wanted to convert it, in the very beginning, into
an undertaking which presupposed a thorough know-
ledge of manufactures, men and business, in which I
was deficient in the same proportion as they were
rendered necessary to me by the direction which I now
gave to my undertaking.
" I, who so much disapproved of hurrying to the higher
stages of instruction before a thorough foundation had
been laid in the elementary steps of the lower stages,
and looked upon it as the fundamental error in the educa-
tion of the day, and who also believed that I was myself
endeavouring with all my might to counteract it in my
plan of education, allowed myself to be carried away by
illusions of the greater remunerativeness of the higher
branches of industry, without knowing even remotely
either them or the means of learning and introducing
them, and to commit the very faults in teaching my school-
children spinning and weaving. ... I wanted to have
the finest thread spun before my children had gained
any steadiness or sureness of hand in spinning even the
coarser kinds, and, in Hke manner, to make musHn fabrics
before my weavers had acquired sufficient steadiness and
readiness in the weaving of common cotton goods."
But there was no "total failure" in the matter, for
over a hundred children had been rescued from ignorance
48 PESTALOZZI.
and poverty and degradation ; and Pestalozzi rightly
claimed that : " I have proved that children after having
lost health, strength and courage in a life of idleness
and mendicity have, when once set to regular work,
quickly recovered their health and spirits and grown
rapidly. I have found that when taken out of their abject
condition they soon became kindly, trustful and sympa-
thetic ; that even the most degraded of them are touched
by kindness, and that the eyes of the child who has been
steeped in misery grow bright with pleasure and surprise
when, after years of hardship, he sees a gentle friendly
hand stretched out to help him ; and I am convinced
that when a child's heart has been touched the conse-
quences will be great for his development and entire
moral character. ... It gives me indescribable pleasure
to see young children, boys and girls, formerly miserable
little creatures, grow and develop, to see contentment
depicted on their faces, to teach their hands to work, to
raise their souls to their Creator, to see the tears of
innocence in prayer shine in the eyes of beloved children,
and to discern the glimmering of hope, of sentiments,
and morals, worthy of the young, in a degraded and
abandoned race. It is joy and happiness beyond de-
scription to see human beings, the image of their
Almighty Creator, grow up in so many forms and with
such different gifts, and then perhaps to discover, where
no one expected it, in the miserable and abandoned son
of the poorest artisan, a great spirit, a genius to be
saved."
Now followed evil days for Pestalozzi. His land was
let to satisfy his creditors, though he was allowed to
remain in the house. *' His situation was frightful.
Frequently in his only too elegant country house he
^ DAYS OF DARKNESS. 49
wanted money, bread and fuel to protect himself against
hunger and cold. His faithful wife, who had pledged
nearly the whole of her property for him, fell into a
severe and tedious illness " (Raumer). Added to this
was the open contempt of his neighbours, whose pre-
vious feelings of unbounded confidence, he tells us,
'' changed into a totally blind abandonment of even the
last shadow of respect for my endeavours, and of belief
in my fitness for the accomplishment of any part of
them. ... My friends now only loved me without hope ;
in the whole circuit of the surrounding district it was
ever^^where said that I was a lost man, that nothing
more could be done for me."
CHAPTER IV.
PESTALOZZI AS A LITERARY MAN—" THE VOICE OF ONE
CRYING IN THE WILDERNESS."
Of the next eighteen years of his life, immediately
following the closing of the Neuhof Poor School, one
of his biographers (Dr. Biber) writes : " After the
breaking up of that institution we find Pestalozzi in a
condition truly deplorable. Dunned by his creditors,
reviled by his enemies, insulted by men in power,
sneered at by the vulgar, treated with ingratitude by
most of those whom he had served, and separated from
the few that might have been grateful, destitute of all
assistance, but overwhelmed with mortifying advice,
cast down by a succession of misfortunes, and tor-
mented by a consciousness of having contributed to
them by his own failings, he consumed his days in
painful desolation on the same spot which he had made
the dwelling-place of love and mercy, but which had
now become to him an abode of anxiety and sorrow.
He had deprived his wife, with her only son, of those
enjoyments and advantages to which her education and
circumstances had given her a claim ; and he had not
even to offer her, in compensation, the tranquil com-
forts of retirement.
" He was riveted with his family to a ruined and
disordered economy, which, at every step, brought
50
MADE PERFECT THROUGH SUFFERINCx. 5 1
painful recollections and anxious prospects before his
mind. Of the cause which lay nearest his heart he
durst not speak, even in a whisper ; a sarcastic hint
as to the success of his undertaking would have been
the answer. He was obliged to conceal from mankind
the love he bore them, and to take it for tender compas-
sion on their part if they considered him no worse than
a lunatic."
Another writer has well said: "Eighteen years! —
what a time for a soul like his to wait ! History
lightly passes over such a period. Ten, twenty, thirty
years— it makes but a cipher difference if nothing great
happens in them. But with what agony must he have
seen day after day, year after year gliding by, who in
his fervent soul longed to labour for the good of man-
kind and yet looked in vain for the opportunity ! "
(Palmer).
Not in vain, however, was this time of tribulation.
Like John the Baptist of old he was preparing his
message for the world. In deep communings with his
own heart and mind, such as all great souls seem
to undergo, he still worked out his plan of salvation
for the common people. His noble ideals were but
chastened and clarified by the waters of affliction.
Experience taught him but did not pervert him. He
believed more firmly than ever in his ideals because he
saw more clearly and fully their need and truth. He
says : " Even while I was the sport of men who con-
demned me I never lost sight for a moment of the
object I had in view, which was the removal of the
causes of the misery that I saw on all sides of me. My
strength too kept on increasing, and my own misfor-
tunes taught me valuable truths. I knew the people as
4*
52 PESTALOZZI.
on one else did. What deceived no one else always de-
ceived me, but what deceived everybody else deceived
me no longer. . . . My own sufferings have enabled me
to understand the sufferings of the people and their
causes as no man without suffering can understand
them. I suffered what the people suffered and saw
them as no one else saw them ; and strange as it may
seem, I was never more profoundly convinced of the
fundamental truths on which I had based my under-
taking than when I saw that I had failed."
Not all his friends failed him in his sorest need. His
old college friend Iselin, who was now editor of Ephe-
merides, invited him, in 1780, to contribute to it, and
Pestalozzi did so in the form of a series of aphorisms on
life and education, under the title of The evening hour
of a hermit. The style and purpose of his work may
be judged from the following quotations : —
" Pastors and teachers of the nations, know you man ;
is it with you a matter of conscience to understand his
nature and his destiny ?
"All mankind are in their nature alike, they have
but one path of contentment. The natural faculties of
each one are to be perfected into pure human wisdom.
This general education of man must serve as the foun-
dation to every education of a particular rank.
" The faculties grow by exercise.
"The intellectual powers of children must not be
urged on to remote distances before they have acquired
strength by exercise in things near them.
"The circle of knowledge commences close round a
man and from thence stretches out concentrically.
'' Real knowledge must take precedence of word-teach-
ing and mere talk."
THE ORIGIN OF "LEONARD AND GERTRUDE". 53
Twenty-one years later he was able to say of these
reflections : " Iselin's Ephemerides bear witness that
the dream of my wishes is not more comprehensive now
than it was when at that time I sought to realise it ".
As has so often been the case with the world's
greatest men, the want of bread-and-butter has called
forth their very souls into articulate form. Soon the
crown and glory of all Pestalozzi's writings was to be
produced — Leonard mid Gertrude, a Book for the People.
It happened that in 1781 the town's watchmen were to
be put into uniform, and this caused a good deal of
discussion. One important outcome of this can best
be given in Pestalozzi's own words : ^' In a playful
moment I put together a short composition turning
this innovation into ridicule, which happened to be
lying on Flissli's [a friendly bookseller] table when he
was talking with his brother the painter (who, as far as
I know, is now living in London where he is held in
great esteem) about my sad fate, and lamenting that he
knew of no means of helping me out of my present
situation, considering the sort of man I was, and the
manner in which I acted. Just at this instant the
painter took up the squib upon the transformation
of the crooked, dusty and uncombed town-watchmen
under our gates, into straight, combed and trim ones,
read it through several times, and then said to his
brother : ' This man can help himself to any extent he
pleases ; he has talent for writing in a style which at
the time in which we live will most certainly excite
interest ; encourage him to do so, and tell him from me,
that he can most certainly help himself as an author,
if he only will '. My friend sent for me on the spot
and was overjoyed while he told me this, and added.
54 PESTALOZZL
* I cannot conceive at all how it was possible that this
should not have struck me '.
'' I felt as if he were telling me a dream. In the
pressure of events I had so neglected my own improve-
ment that I could scarcely write a line without com-
mitting grammatical errors ; and in spite of all that
Fiissli said, I thought myself quite incapable of such
work. But necessity which is so often said to be a bad
counsellor was now a good one to me. Marmontel's
Contes moraux were lying on my table when I came
home ; I immediately took them up and asked myself
the distinct question, whether it might be possible for
me to do anything of the kind, and after I had read a
few of these tales, and read them again, it appeared to
me that, after all, this might not be altogether impos-
sible. I attempted five or six similar little stories, of
which all I know is that no one of them pleased me ;
the last was Leonard and Gertrude, whose history
flowed from my pen, I know not how, and developed
itself of its own accord, without my having the slightest
plan in my head, and even without my thinking of one.
In a few weeks the book stood there, without my know-
ing exactly how I had done it. I felt its value, but
only as a man in his sleep feels the value of some piece
of good fortune of which he is just dreaming, I scarcely
knew that I was awake, and yet a new ray of hope
began to dawn upon m.e, when I thought that it might
be possible to better my pecuniary condition, and to
make it more supportable to my family. . . .
" He [Recorder Iselin of Basle, whom Pestalozzi con-
sulted] immediately wrote to Decker in Berlin, who
paid me a louisd'or per sheet, but promised at the same
time that, if the sale of the work should render a second
"LEONARD AND GERTRUDE." 55
edition necessary, he would pay me the same again. I
was unspeakably satisfied. A louis d'or per sheet was
to me much, very much, in the circumstances in which
I then was. The book appeared, and excited quite a
remarkable degree of interest in my own country and
throughout the whole of Germany. Nearly all the
journals spoke in its praise, and, what is perhaps still
more, nearly all the almanacs became full of it ; but the
most unexpected thing to me was that, immediately
after its appearance, the Agricultural Society of Bern
awarded me their great gold medal, with a letter of
thanks. Pleased as I was with the medal, and glad as
I should have been to keep it, I was nevertheless obliged
to part with it in my then situation, and sold it some
weeks after for its value in money at a goldsmith's."
In the preface to the first edition he writes: "In
that which I here rekte, and which I have for the most
part seen and heard myself in the course of an active
life, I have even taken care not once to add my own
opinion to what I saw and heard the people themselves
feeling, judging, believing, speaking and attempting".
In the preface to the second edition he says that the
object of the book was " to bring about a better popular
education, based upon the true condition of the people
and their natural relations. It was my first word to
the heart of the poor and destitute in the land ... to
the mothers in the land, and to the heart which God
gave them, to be to theirs what no one on earth can be
in their stead."
Briefly the story, so far as it directly concerns educa-
tion, is as follows : In the village of Bonnal, of which
Arner is lord and which is managed by his unprincipled
steward Hummel, live Leonard and his wife Gertrude.
56 PESTALOZZI.
Leonard is a man of weak character, easily led into
wrong, and has fallen into the power of Hummel,
through borrowing money from him. Gertrude is " the
angel in the house " : the perfect wife and mother, the
Good-Samaritan neighbour, and the complete housewife.
To rescue her husband from the clutches of the steward
Gertrude goes to the castle to see Arner. The result of
her visit is that Leonard is commissioned to build a
church, and Hummel becomes suspect. Then follows
a conflict between the influences for evil and for good in
the village ; Arner having become, through Gertrude's
influence and the force of events, the champion of the
good. Though many good deeds are done by Arner
nothing really substantial in reform takes place until a
spinner named Cotton Meyer suggests to Arner that
''after all we can do very little with the people unless
the next generation is to have a different training from
that our schools furnish. Our schools ought really to
stand in the closest connection with the life of the home,
instead of, as now, in strong contradiction to it."
Lieutenant Gliilphi, a friend and helper of Arner,
warmly supports this view. The question then arises :
how is such a school to be set up in Bonnal. Cotton
Meyer says: " I know a spinning- woman in the village
who understands it far better than I ". This is Gertrude
who trains her own children in her own house. Arner,
Gliilphi and the pastor visit Gertrude's cottage and
watch Gertrude training her children. The result is
that Gliilphi resolves, " I will be schoolmaster," and
obtains Gertrude's promise to help him ; all agreeing
that the proper education of the young is the only
means of reforming the village. Gliilphi becomes the
village schoolmaster and, after he has overcome great
"LEONARD AND GERTRUDE." 57
Opposition from the parents and the children, his work
is crowned with success and he becomes a power for
good in the village. Thus is opened a new era, and from
this time forward things go on so well that Bonnal be-
comes a model village, and a commission is appointed
from the ducal court to report on the possibility of a
universal application of the principles of government in
the village. This commission was constituted on these
lines: "to ensure thoroughness there must be among
the examiners men skilled in law and finance, merchants,
clergymen. Government officials, schoolmasters and
physicians, beside women of different ranks and condi-
tions, who shall view the matter with their woman's
eyes, and be sure that there is nothing visionary in the
background ". The examiners, after six days' searching
inspection, unanimously recommended that the principles
should be applied universally.
There is also a parallel purpose in the book : the
setting forth of ways and means of social and economic
reform. The terrible evils wrought upon the persons
and characters of poor people by tyrannical and un-
principled officials — influenced by greed of gain and un-
checked by proper supervision — are exposed with un-
flinching truth. It is then shown how an intelligent
and right-minded man, with power, can thwart the
designs of the corrupter and the corrupted, and en-
courage those who desire to do well, by personal action
and wisely planned arrangements. Indolence, theft,
and the abuse of charity can be prevented ; whilst the
love of ease, pleasure and honour can be rightly directed.
A proper use of religious services and festivals, and the
exposure of superstitions, can be used for the furthering
of enlightenment amongst the people.
58 PESTALOZZI.
One of the most powerful influences for good will be
found in the union and harmonious action of all classes.
A scheme to reaHse this in Bonnal is outlined : — (i) A
school to be organised, the methods in which are to be
in harmony with the developing influence of domestic
life. (2) The better part of the people of Bonnal to
join with those of the castle and the parsonage in
obtaining a real and active influence over the various
households in the village. (3) A new method of
choosing overseers (bailiffs) to be adopted, so that the
evil influence of bad overseers might be avoided.
Further, the peasants were to have tithe-free land for
those of their children who saved eight or ten florins
before their twentieth year. Thus developed through
education : a share in their local government : and
security of property, the people of Bonnal make their
place a model village.
The book has many passages of great eloquence,
exquisite pathos, manly morahsing, sparkling wit, dra-
matic intensity, riotous humour, fine character sketches,
and charming incidents, in spite of its want of plot and
great diffuseness.
Whilst the book was widely and eagerly read it
failed to convey to the masses Pestalozzi's own moral —
that the proper education of the young is the foundation
and corner-stone of true reform. Most of those who
read the book desired only to be interested and amused,
and seemed to think that it showed that all the poverty
and depravity among the common people resulted from
the dishonesty and greed of village oflicials ; and that it
only needed mothers like Gertrude, schoolmasters like
Gliilphi, and lords like Arner to put such matters right.
Festalozzi realised that his readers missed his point and,
"CHRISTOPHER AND ELIZA." 59
to remedy this, he wrote another book : Christopher and
Eliza, my second book for the people, in 1782. In a later
edition of it he says in the preface : " I made a peasant
family read together Leonard and Gertrude, and say
things about the story of that work, and the persons
introduced in it, which I thought might not occur of
themselves to everybody's mind ". The book consists
of thirty dialogues in which Christopher, an intelligent
farmer, discusses with his family and head servant the
history of Bonnal, chapter by chapter. This also failed
of its purpose so far as the poor themselves were con-
cerned. He then continued Leonard and Gertrude, in
three more volumes which appeared in 1783, 1785 and
1787 respectively.
But those of great minds and large hearts, those in
high places who sought the welfare of the many, under-
stood, appreciated and sympathised with the purpose of
the book. Henning says that it was translated into
Danish ; and that the nobles — amongst others the Coun-
tess Schimmelman — were so much impressed and in-
fluenced by the reading of it that they took steps to
improve the condition of the peasantry on their own
estates. Count Zinzendorf, the Austrian Minister of
Finance, consulted Pestalozzi as to educational legisla-
tion based on the ideas set forth in the book.
Perhaps the greatest individual triumph of this work
was its influence on Fellenberg, who says : " The book
made a deep impression on me, and each time I read it
I was more and more convinced of its truth, and it was
in a burst of deep feeling caused by the reading of it
that I vowed to my mother that I would devote my life
to the poor and forsaken children ". Thus arose another
great Swiss reformer,
60 PESTALOZZI.
On the advice of Iselin, Pestalozzi started a weekly
newspaper, called the Swiss News, in 1782. In this he
strove to make his views more widely known and better
understood. His chief purpose was to show how
education was the best means for dealing with the
deepest elements of the national life, so as to secure its
highest welfare and cure its worst diseases. He writes :
" Governors and instructors have only to direct the
progress of the enlightenments and the enjoyments of
the time, with all the power and with all the wisdom
they possess, in order that the people may lose nothing
that is still good, may thoroughly understand what they
ought to do, and willingly do that which brings them a
livelihood ". Again : " Human morality is nothing more
than that which results from the development of the
first feelings of love and gratitude which the nursling
experiences ".
As to the beginnings of education, he writes: '*The
first development of the child's powers ought to come
from his participation in the work of the paternal house ;
for this work is, necessarily, that which the father and
mother best understand, that which most engages their
attention, and that which they are best able to teach ".
In a very characteristic passage — half rhapsody and half
reason — he says, in one number : " Summer day ! teach
to this worm who crawls upon the earth that the fruits
of life develop in the midst of the fires and storms of
our globe ; but that to ripen they need the gentle rains,
the glistening dew, and the refreshing rest of night.
Teach me, summer day, that man, formed of the dust
of the ground, grows and ripens like a plant rooted in
the soil."
Essays are given on such subjects as : the abuse of
"ILLUSTRATIONS OF MY A B C BOOK." 6 1
legal forms for defeating the ends of justice; one law
for the rich and another for the poor ; the hypocrisy of
liberal sentiments among the privileged classes and
their indifference to the real sufferings of the poor ;
domestic economy among the lower classes ; the in-
fluence of different occupations on the character of the
people ; the state of the peasantry and of the manufac-
turing classes ; the best interest of landed proprietors ;
parochial administration ; the corruption of high life ;
the destructive effects of quackery and superstition ;
the moral improvement of criminals ; the defects of
charity schools ; the duty of society to secure to every
individual the means of gaining an honest livelihood ;
medical police ; and so on.
In this periodical he published a series of allegorical
tales, under the somewhat fanciful title of Illustrations
to my A B C Book, or to the Elements of my Philosophy.
The deep insight and searching irony — in relation to the
political and social conditions in the country (see pp. 3-9)
— in them may be seen in the following selections : —
*' The Flame and the Tallow.
" ' I am always ashamed to see myself so near to you,'
said the flame to the tallow.
'* The tallow answered : ' I thought you were ashamed
of losing me, because then you always disappear '.
" ' FooHsh grease,' replied the flame, ' it is true that I
shine only so long as I live upon you, but I am ashamed
of letting it be known.' "
** The Oak and the Grass.
" One morning the grass said to the oak, under whose
branches it grew : ' I should get on much better in the
62 PESTALOZZI.
Open than under your shelter'. ' You are very ungrate-
ful,' replied the oak, ' not to acknowledge the blessing,
which you enjoy, of being protected from the frost in
winter by the leaves from my autumn sheddings, with
which I cover you.'
" But the grass answered : ' You deprive me, with your
branches, of my share of sun, dew and rain ; and with
your roots my portion of nourishment from the ground ;
boast not therefore of the forced benevolence of your
foliage, with which you foster your own growth rather
than prevent my decay '."
" The Privilege of the Fishes.
" The fishes in a pond complained that they were,
more than their neighbours in other ponds, persecuted
by the pikes. Thereupon an old pike, who was the
judge of the pond, pronounced this sentence : * That the
defendants, to make amends, shall in future permit,
every year, two common fishes to become pikes '."
" Equality.
" A dwarf said to a giant : ' We have equal rights ! '
' Very true, my good friend ; but you cannot walk in my
shoes,' replied the giant."
By calling these fables '* Illustrations of my A B C,"
i.e., Leonard and Gertrude, Pestalozzi intended to draw
attention to the fact that they were yet another attempt
to make clear " the elements of my philosophy," i.e., the
moral regeneration of the race, through education, as the
only means to human happiness.
These writings show very clearly what was the real
basis of Pestalozzi's work, viz., national regeneration
through education aiming at the highest individual
" INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE COURSE OF NATURE." 6$
development ; and how his own mind was developing in
his efforts to set forth his new gospel of social salvation.
Ashe once said to Mrs. Niederer: "It is only by en-
nobling men that we can put an end to the misery and
ferment of the people ; and also to the abuses of des-
potism, whether it be of princes or whether it be of
mobs ".
The Swiss News lasted for only twelve months, and
its value was for posterity rather than for its own times.
In its essays, short moral stories, dialogues, fables and
verse are enshrined some of the most striking evidences
of Pestalozzi's genius : his originality, depth, fulness
and independence of thought — untinged and unhampered
by any outside influence whatsoever — being seen at their
best.
In 1787 he published the fourth volume of his Leonard
and Gertrude ; and again took up farming.
In 1797 appeared his Investigations into the Course of
N attire in the Development of the Human Race. This was
an attempt to find a philosophical basis for his views,
and was undertaken at the suggestion of the great
German philosopher FicKte. The following is a short
outline of the plan and purpose of the book. He pro-
poses, at the outset, to answer the following ques-
tions : —
" What am I ? what is the hi>.fnan species ?
' ' What have I done ? what is thd'^human species doing ?
''What has the course of my life, such as it has
been, made of me ; and what has the '^course of life, such
as it has been, made of the human species ?
"On what ground do my volition and my opinions
rest, and must they rest, under the circumstances in
which I am placed ?
64 PESTALOZZI.
"On what ground do the voHtions of the human
species, and its opinions, rest, and must rest, under the
circumstances in which it is placed ? "
To find an answer to these questions he reviews the
*' march of civilisation," and finds that : —
" By the helplessness of his animal condition man is
brought to knowledge.
" Knowledge leads to acquisition, acquisition to pos-
session. Possession leads to the formation of society.
Society leads to powers and honours. Powers and
honours lead to the relations of rulers and subjects,
i.e., relations of nobles and commons to the crown.
'' All these relations call for a state of law. The state
of law calls for civil liberty. The want of law entails
tyranny and slavery.
" Following the course of nature in another direction,
I find in myself a certain benevolence, by which acquisi-
tion, honour, property and power ennoble my mind,
whilst without it all these privileges of my social con-
dition only tend to degrade me more deeply."
In other words, the race has developed through three
great stages, viz., (i) an original, instinctive, innocent,
animal state of nature. In this condition man is the
creature and the victim of circumstances ; " his hands
are ever stained with the blood of his brother ; like a
tiger he defends his den, and roars against his own
species ; he claims the ends of the earth as his own ;
and perpetrates whatever he chooses under the sun,"
i.e., there are no laws except those of self-preservation
and no morals save his own satisfactions. But the
hardships of such a life lead him to desire, and then to
seek, better conditions. Hence conflict with his fellows
is changed for co-operation with them.
" INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE COURSE OF NATURE." 6$
Now arises (2) the social state. Co-operation leads
to greater achievements and more enjoyments. Speech
and knowledge are greatly developed, and thus man the
brute becomes man the human. But with this come
rights and duties, for we can only get much by giving
much. Now, therefore, come powers and honours, for
''when hundreds and thousands are gathered together
[man] is compelled, in spite of himself, to say to the
strong, ' Be thou my shield ' ; and to the cunning, * Be
thou my guide ' ; and to the rich, ' Be thou my pre-
server ' ". Such honours and powers are in themselves
indispensably connected with the development of our
species ; and only when abused by unfaithful and
criminal persons do they corrupt and degrade the race.
After all, however, " the relation of man to man in
the social state is merely animal . . . there is nothing
he contemplates less than the service of God and the
love due to his neighbour. He enters society with a
view to gratify himself, and to enjoy all those things
which, to a sensual and animal being, are the indispens-
able conditions of satisfaction and happiness. The
social law is, therefore, not in any wise a moral law,
but a mere modification of the animal law."
Man must, therefore, raise himself out of the social
state — or he will ever be liable to, and suffer from, the
dangers of it — into (3) the moral state. It is only the
moral will — ''the force of which he opposes to the
force of his nature " — that can save man. He finds
within himself an element called benevolence, and a
power called love, which will ennoble the very root of
benevolence — even though this is essentially animal in
its origin. " But there is a danger still of love being
lost in my longing for self-gratification ; I feel desolate
5
66 PESTALOZZI.
as an orphan, and I seek to rise beyond the power of
imagination, beyond the limits of all research and
knowledge that is possible here below, to the fountain-
head of my existence, to derive from thence help against
the desolation of my being, against all the ills and
weaknesses of my nature."
Therefore a man "will fear God in order that the
animal instincts of his nature shall not degrade him in
his inmost soul. He feels what he can do in this re-
spect, and then he makes what he can do the law of
what he ought to do. Subjected to this law, which he
imposes upon himself, he is distinguished above all
other creatures with which we are acquainted." This is
the moral man : the man who desires to be higher,
nobler and better than he is, and makes every en-
deavour to raise himself by working upon his own
character. Only when a society is composed of such
men can it be a really beneficent, prosperous and
happy one.
The animal man is as nature makes him ; the social
man is the product of the social organisation in which
he happens to be ; but the moral man is the outcome
of his own efforts — he is, in a sense, his own creator.
" Morality is quite an individual matter. . . . No man
can feel for me that I am. No man can feel for me
that I am moral." The religion of the animal man
is idolatry, because he is a slave to his senses and
the creature of his fears. The religion of social man
is deceit, because society fosters ambition, pride and
inequality; and man strives, by every means, for
place and power — endeavours to get all he can for
himself at the expense of others. The religion of the
moral man is truth^ for this is the foundation of his
"INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE COURSE OF NATURE." 6/
life and the only means by which he can carry out the
self-improvement for which he lives. A man must
possess himself — and this the truly moral man does —
before he can really possess anything else. Then is he
of real worth to himself, his family and the community,
for he is no longer subject to his animal instincts or the
prejudices of society.
It is only fair to the reader to point out that the
above summary is an attempt to make clear what
Pestalozzi seems to have meant. All his critics are
agreed that there is much that is wordy and obscure in
the work ; but none the less, there is much that is fine
in substance and in form. From the rational point of view
it suffers seriously from the fact that it is — like Rousseau's
works — speculative and fanciful rather than scientific
and exact, but this does not make it either valueless
or entirely wrong. That the views set forth in the book
really underlaid and influenced Pestalozzi's methods,
is clear from his other writings, and is, perhaps, best
shown in his Letters on Infants' Education — one of the
simplest, clearest and most interesting of his writ-
ings on education, and the last and most neglected
of them. His own criticism on the Investigations is :
"This book is to me only another proof of my lack of
ability ; it is simply a diversion of my imaginative
faculty, a work relatively weak. . . . No one under-
stands me, and it has been hinted that the whole work
has been taken for nonsense."
But to Pestalozzi all this meant much — he found
himself, both intellectually and practically. He says :
" I was grey haired, yet still a child, but a child deeply
disturbed within himself Still in all these troublous
times I moved forwards to the purpose of my life ; but
5*
68 PESTALOZZI.
my way was more unbalanced and erring than ever.
I now sought a path to my end. . . . They [those who
despised him] restored me to myself and left me . . .
nothing but the word which I spoke in the first days of
that overthrow, * / will turn schoolmaster '."
After the publication of the Investigations follow ten
years of silence so far as concerns Pestalozzi's pen.
But meantime great events were happening in Switzer-
land. The political teaching of Rousseau and others
was finding expression in revolutionary reform. Pesta-
lozzi was a democrat of the democrats and used his
pen on the side of the people. The national govern-
ment had been put into the hands of five men, who
formed the *' Executive Directory". These were only
too glad to make use of the services of the author of
Leonard and Gertrude, and they made him editor of a
journal designed to spread the knowledge of revolution-
ary principles.
The title of the paper was to be the Popular Swiss
News : it was to be issued once a week ; and to be
sent free to schoolmasters, clergymen and all Govern-
ment officials, who received orders to read it and to
explain its contents to others. It was an entirely
official paper, published by the Directory at the request
of the Great Council; and its programme was to
inform the people as to the changes of Government :
spread general enlightenment : and rally the people to
the support of the united Government. The first
number appeared on 8th September, 1798.
But Pestalozzi had already offered his services for
other work, nearer and dearer to his heart. On 21st
May, 1798, he sent this letter to the Minister of
Justice : —
PUBLIC RECOGNITION. 69
*' Citizen Minister,
" Convinced that the country is in urgent
need of some improvement in the education and schools
of the people, and feeling certain that three or four
months' experience would produce the most important
results, I address myself, in the absence of Citizen
Minister Stapfer, to Citizen Minister Meyer, to offer
through him my services to the country, and to beg
him to take the necessary steps with the Directory
for the carrying out of my patriotic purposes.
*'With republican greeting,
" Pestalozzi."
Thus ends another epoch of Pestalozzi's life ; a pe-
riod which must have been filled with many an agony
of despondency, despair and deprivation, only partly
expressed by his statement in a letter to M. Zschokke.
" Do you know that I have wanted the bare necessities ?
Do you know that until now I have kept out of society,
away from church, because I had neither clothes nor
money to buy them ? O Zschokke, do you know that
I am the laughing-stock of the passers-by because I
look like a beggar ? Do you know that ? More than
a thousand times I was obliged to go without dinner,
and at noon, when even the poorest were seated around
a table, I devoured a morsel of bread upon the high-
way . . . and all this that I might minister to the needs
of the poor, by the realisation of my principles."
Yet, happily, even in these dark times there were bursts
of glorious sunshine. His writings had made him, to
a certain extent, famous. He visited Germany and be-
came acquainted with Goethe, Wieland, Herder, Fichte
and other great men, in 1792 ; and in the same year he
70 PESTALOZZI.
was declared a " Citizen of the French RepubHc," in
company with such men as Bentham, Tom Payne,
Wilberforce, Clarkson, Washington, Madison, Klop-
stock, Kozciusko, etc. Karl von Bonstetten asked
Pestalozzi to live with him on his estate in Italian
Switzerland ; the Austrian Minister of Finance, Count
Zinzendorf, wished to have him in his neighbourhood ;
and the Grand Duke of Tuscany desired to give him an
appointment.
CHAPTER V.
STANZ AND BURGDORF— " I WILL TURN SCHOOLMASTER."
One of the five Swiss Directors was Le Grand, who
had been the friend and helper of Pastor Oberlin in his
great educational work in the Ban de la Roche, and he
was only too pleased to take Pestalozzi at his word.
Arrangements were being made for Pestalozzi to open a
school in the canton of Argovie when war put an end to
the project. But though the war closed one opening
it created another. On the gth of September, 1798,
the town of Stanz was burnt by the French, and the
people put to the sword with the greatest ferocity.
Crowds of fatherless and motherless children wandered
about destitute and homeless. Le Grand called upon
Pestalozzi to go to the rescue of the orphans at Stanz.
He gladly went.
The regulations and aim of the institution — a poor-
house— to be established are set forth in the decree
issued by the Directory on the 5th of December, 1798.
They are : " (i) The immediate control of the poor-
house at Stanz is entrusted to Citizen Pestalozzi. (2)
Children of both sexes, taken from among the poorest,
and specially from the orphans in the Stanz district,
will be received in it and brought up free of charge. (3)
Children will not be received under the age of five
71
72 PESTALOZZI.
years ; they will remain till they are fit to go into
service, or to learn such a trade as cannot be taught to
them in the institution.
''(4) The poor-house will be conducted with all the
care and economy that befits such an institution. It
will be the rule that children shall be gradually led to
take part in all the work necessary for the carrying on
and support of the establishment. The time of the
pupils will be divided between work in the fields, the
house and the schoolroom. An endeavour will be made
to develop in the pupils as much skill, and as many
useful powers, as the funds of the institution will
permit. So far as it is possible to do so without en-
dangering the industrial ends which are to be aimed
at, a few lessons will be given during the manual
work.
"(5) All the out-buildings of the women's convent at
Stanz are to be given up to the work of the institution,
and also a sufiicient portion of the adjoining meadow-
land. The buildings will at once be repaired and fitted
up for the accommodation of eighty pupils, in accord-
ance with the plans drawn up by Citizen Schmid, of
Lucerne. (6) For the founding of the asylum the
Minister of the Interior will, once for all, place a sum of
two hundred and forty pounds at the disposal of the
Committee of the Poor " [Pestalozzi ; Truttman, the
sub-prefect of Arth ; and Businger, the parish-priest of
Stanz]. This decree was based upon a plan drawn up
by Pestalozzi, and warmly approved by Stapfer, Reng-
ger and Le Grand.
The actual plan of work is given by Pestalozzi in a
letter to Rengger: *' The hours of work and study are
now fixed as follows : from six to eight, lessons ; then
THE STANZ ORPHANS' SCHOOL. 73
manual work till four in the afternoon ; then lessons
again till eight ". This letter was written on the igth
April, 1799.
A very real interest was taken by Government in
the institution, as is shown by the frequent reports con-
cerning it, and by the fact that on the 24th of May,
1799, Pestalozzi took all his children to Lucerne, where
they were welcomed by the members of the Executive
Directory. On this occasion each child received a
silver coin as a present.
While the convent was being built and as soon as a
single room could be made use of, Pestalozzi received
forty children — very soon after increased to eighty —
and began his work. This was in January, 1799, in a
time of severe cold. Here, in this one room in which
master and pupils had to live both by day and night,
was made an experiment in practical education the
history of which will, probably, never die. For five
months Pestalozzi worked like any slave and nearly
killed himself by overwork. He was almost without
help : *' I opened the establishment with no other
helper than a woman-servant ". Nothing was pre-
pared for the children : " Neither kitchen, rooms, nor
beds were ready to receive them. At first this was a
source of incredible trouble. For the first few weeks I
was shut up in a very small room ; the weather was
bad, and the alterations, which made a great dust and
filled the corridors with rubbish, rendered the air very
unhealthy. The want of beds compelled me at first to
send some of the poor children home at night ; and they
came back next day covered with vermin.
" Most of them on their arrival were very degenerated
specimens of humanity. Many of them had a sort of
74 PESTALOZZI.
chronic skin-disease, which almost prevented their walk-
ing ; or sores on their heads, or rags full of vermin ; many
were almost skeletons with haggard, careworn faces
and foreheads wrinkled with distrust and dread ; some
brazen, accustomed to begging, hypocrisy, and all sorts
of deceit ; others broken by misfortune, patient, but
suspicious, timid, and entirely devoid of affection. There
were some spoilt children amongst them who had known
the sweets of comfort ; these were full of pretensions.
They kept to themselves, regarding with disdain the
little beggars who had become their comrades ; tolerat-
ing this equality ; and quite unable to adapt themselves
to the ways of the house, which differed too much from
their old habits.
" But what was common to them all was a persistent
idleness, resulting from the want of any exercise of their
bodily powers and the faculties of their intelligence.
Out of every ten children there was hardly one who
knew his ABC; as for any other knowledge, it was, of
course, out of the question. . . .
" I was alone with them from morning till night. It
was from my hand that they received all that could do
good to their souls and bodies. All needful help, con-
solation and instruction they received directly from
me. . . . We shared our food and drink. ... I was with
them when they were strong and by their side when
they were ill. I slept in their midst. I was the last to
go to bed and the first to get up. When we retired to
bed I prayed with them, and, at their own request,
taught them till they fell asleep. Their clothes and
bodies were intolerably filthy, but I looked after both
myself, and was thus constantly exposed to the risk of
contagion."
THE STANZ ORPHANS' SCHOOL. ^5
Although sickness broke out amongst them, " on the
return of spring it was evident to everybody that the
children were doing well, growing rapidly, and gaining
colour. Certain magistrates and ecclesiastics, who saw
them some time afterwards, stated that they had im-
proved almost beyond recognition." But, better still :
*' I witnessed the growth of an inward strength in my
children, which, in its general development far surpassed
my expectations, and in its particular manifestations not
only often surprised me, but touched me deeply. . . . My
children soon became more open, more contented and
more susceptible to every good and noble influence than
any one could possibly have foreseen when they first
came to me, so devoid were they of ideas, good feelings
and moral principles. ... I had incomparably less
trouble to develop those children whose minds were still
blank, than those who had already acquired inaccurate
ideas. . . . My pupils developed rapidly ; it was another
race. . . . The children very soon felt that there existed
in them forces which they did not know, and in par-
ticular they acquired a general sentiment of order and
beauty. They were self-conscious, and the impression
of weariness which habitually reigns in schools vanished
like a shadow from my classroom. They willed, they
had power, they persevered, they succeeded, and they
were happy."
The kind of children with which Pestalozzi had to
deal is shown in his report on them to the Directory ;
e.g., " Jacob Baggenstoss, fifteen, of Stanzstad : father
dead, mother living : good health, small capacity ; can
do nothing more than spin cotton : accustomed to
begging. . . . Gaspard Joseph Waser, eleven, of Stanz-
stad : father living, mother dead : healthy, and of good
y6 PESTALOZZI.
abilities, rough detestable habits: does not know his
ABC: cannot spin : accustomed to begging. . . .
Mathias Odermatt, eight, of Stanz : father killed, mother
living : deformed and sickly, weak and idle : knows noth-
ing; poor. . . . Anna Josephine Amstad, fifteen, of Stanz:
father dead, mother living : healthy, ordinary ability :
can read a little : can spin : extremely poor. . . . Cather-
ine Aieer, five, of Stanz : father killed, mother living :
healthy, very good abilities: knows nothing: poor."
His success with his pupils is testified by Truttman
and Businger in their reports to the Directory. The
former says : " The poor-house is doing well. Father
Pestalozzi works persistently night and day. There are
now sixty-two children who are boarded and employed
all day in the establishment, though only fifty can stay
at night, owing to insufficient beds. It is amazing to
see all that this excellent man does and what great
progress his pupils have made in so short a time. They
are now eager for instruction." Businger says : *' The
poor-house has started, and is going on well. Over
seventy children have already been received, and every
day brings more applicants for admission. Citizen
Pestalozzi works unceasingly for the progress of the
institution, and it is difficult to believe one's eyes and
ears when one sees and hears all that his work has
performed in so short a time." These reports, be it
noted, were written the first on nth February, 1799,
and the second in the same week ; whilst the first pupils
were received into the establishment on 14th January,
1799.
Truttman's opinions are not the less valuable because
he was not Wind to Pestalozzi's weaknesses. On 25th
March, 1799, he wrote to the minister as follows : " I
THE STANZ ORPHANS' SCHOOL. 77
must tell you frankly that the economical administration
of the establishment, the classification of the children,
both for instruction and manual work ; and the setting to
work of the necessary superintendents and masters, can
no longer be delayed without injury to this charitable
institution. ... I admire the zeal of Citizen Pestalozzi,
and his untiring and devoted activity for the institution ;
this deserves honour and recognition ; but I foresee that
he will not be able to carry out his ideas, nor to give the
undertaking the carefully arranged development which
is necessary for its success. Indeed, without a new
organisation, which shall provide for all the various re-
quirements of the institution, it cannot succeed. This
excellent man has both firmness and gentleness, but un-
fortunately he often uses them at the wrong time. . . .
The establishment needs a larger staff."
This work was done in the face of great opposition on the
part of the parents, and much misunderstandingby others.
Pestalozzi was accused of under-feeding the children ;
being too severe with them ; and seeking only his own
advantage. Children were persuaded to run away from
the school, but not '* till they were free of their vermin
and their rags ". As a Protestant, Pestalozzi was sus-
pected of a design to convert the children, who were
practically all Roman Catholics. Writing to his friend
Gessner, he says : " You will hardly believe that it was
the Capuchin friars and the nuns of the convent that
showed the greatest sympathy with my work. Few
people, except Truttman, took any active interest in it.
Those from whom I had hoped most were too deeply
engrossed with their high political affairs to think of our
little institution as having the least degree of import-
ance."
78 PESTALOZZI.
Just as the French army was the cause of the opening
of the institution, so, five months later, it led to its
being closed. Retreating before the Austrians they were
in need of a hospital, and hearing that there was a large
building at Stanz they turned Pestalozzi and his children
out on 8th June, 1799, and took possession of the con-
vent. Zschokke, the Government agent, says that
Pestalozzi gave to each of the children who were sent
away " a change of clothes, some linen, and a little
money ". When the French departed, some of the
children returned, and Zschokke on 28th June reported
to Minister Rengger that "there still remain in the
establishment twenty-two children of both sexes".
This closing of the institution was a blessing in dis-
guise for Pestalozzi himself. He was very ill and spit-
ting blood. He went up the Gurnigel mountain, in the
Bernese Oberland, where there was a medicinal spring.
Of this visit he writes : " On the Gurnigel I enjoyed days
of recreation. I required them ; it is a wonder that I
am still alive. I shall not forget those days as long as
I live : they saved me, but I could not live without my
work." In spite of these facts he was much blamed for
giving up the school at Stanz.
How little for himself, yet how much for humanity,
did he gain at Stanz. There he discovered that his ideas
for the improvement of the people were not idle dreams.
He says: " I had children at Stanz whose powers, not
dulled by the weariness of unpsychological home and
school discipline, developed very quickly. It was like
another race. ... I saw the capacity of human nature,
and its peculiarities, in full play — in many ways. Its
defects were those of healthy nature, totally different
from the faults caused by bad and artificial teaching —
RESULTS AT STANZ. 79
hopeless languishing and complete crippling of the
mind.
" I saw in this combination of ignorance and un-
schooled faculties a power of understanding, and a firm
conception of the known and the seen of which our ABC
puppets have no notion.
" I learned from them — I must have been blind not to
have learned — to know the natural relation which real
knowledge bears to book-knowledge. I learnt from
them what a handicap this one-sided letter-knowledge
and entire reliance on words (which are only sound and
noise when there is not something behind them) must
be. I saw what a hindrance this may be to the real
power of observation, and the firm conception of the
objects which surround us.
" Thus far I got at Stanz. I felt that my experiment
proved the possibility of founding popular instruction
on psychological grounds : of laying true knowledge,
gained by sense-impression at the foundation of in-
struction ; and of tearing away the mask of its shallow
bombast. I felt that I could solve the problem to un-
prejudiced and intelligent men : though, as I well knew,
I could never enlighten the prejudiced crowd, who are
like geese which, ever since they cracked the shell, have
been confined in coop and shed, and have lost all power
of flying and swimming " {How Gertrude Teaches).
When he was sufficiently recovered from his illness
he again began schoolwork. This time it was at Burg-
dorf. Again he was beset with jealousy and misunder-
standing ; so much so that it was only through the help
of influential friends that he was allowed to work in a
small school the master of which was a shoemaker.
From this school the parents of the scholars and the
8o PESTALOZZI.
shoemaker soon got him removed, and he was sent to
a dame school where only children between four and
eight years of age were admitted — an infants' school —
and where they were taught only reading and writing.
It was thought that, at any rate, he could do very little
harm there. Says Pestalozzi : '' It was whispered that
I myself could not write, nor work accounts, nor even
read decently. Popular reports are not always entirely
destitute of truth ; it is true I could not write, nor read,
nor work accounts well." No : he could only think
like a genius and work like a hero !
It is interesting, in this connection, to remember that
when he wrote his Leonard and Gertrude it was " in-
sufferably incorrect and unpolished," and " the want of
orthographical accuracy" had to " be rectified ". At
Neuhof he taught the children to work so well and
quickly in arithmetic that he himself had to use a slate
and pencil to check their answers. He had vowed to
have done with books when he left college, and to learn
through things and work. To this resolution he had
firmly kept. He writes : " For these last thirty years
I have read no book, nor have I been able to read any ;
I had no language left for abstract notions ; in my mind
there was nothing but living truths, brought to my
consciousness in an intuitive manner, in the course of
my experience ; but I was no more able to analyse those
truths, than to bring to my recollection the details of
the observations by which I had been led to their dis-
covery ". These passages must, of course, be interpreted
by what we know of his education and training, and his
life-work thus far.
In this small infants' school of twenty-five children,
where the amiable indifference of the good old dame
INFANTS' TEACHER AT BURGDORF. 8 1
left him a free hand, Pestalo^zi was thoroughly at
home. His genius and his fatherly methods were in
suitable surroundings, and his work was a triumphant
success. After eight months' work the Burgdorf School
Commission examined the children, and then wrote this
public letter to Pestalozzi : ''The surprising progress
of your little scholars of various capacities shows plainly
that every one is good for something, if the teacher
knows how to get at his abilities and develop them ac-
cording to the laws of psychology. By your method of
teaching you have proved how to lay the groundwork of
instruction in such a way that it may afterwards sup-
port what is built on it. . . . Between the ages of five and
eight, a period in which according to the system of
torture enforced hitherto, children have learnt to know
their letters, to spell and read, your scholars have not
only accomplished all this with a success as yet un-
known, but the best of them have already distinguished
themselves by their good writing, drawing and calculat-
ing. In them all you have been able so to arouse and
excite a liking for history, natural history, mensuration,
geography, etc., that thus future teachers must find
their task a far easier one if they only know how to
make good use of the preparatory stage the children
have gone through with you." Further, his plan of
instruction " could be applied during the earliest years
at which instruction could be given in the family circle :
by a mother, by a child who was a little older than the
beginner, or by an intelligent servant whilst doing her
household work ". All of which was doubtless the report
of the School Commission, but the voice is the voice of
Pestalozzi and the words are his words— the commis-
sioners doubtless saw enough to believe in Pestalozzi,
6
82 PESTALOZZI.
and then, like wise men, were content to let him speak
through them.
Soon after the issue of this report Pestalozzi was
appointed master of the second boys' school of Burgdorf.
Here he did not succeed so well ; and soon had to resign
owing to a pulmonary attack. When well enough to
resume work he obtained such effectual help from some
of his friends in office that the Helvetic Government
granted him the use of the castle at Burgdorf for a
school — M. Fischer having died. He managed — thanks
to the help of the "Society of the Friends of Education,"
which had been founded, on the initiative of Stapfer, for
the purpose of promoting Pestalozzi's work — to raise a
loan for preparing and furnishing the building and, to-
wards the end of 1799, opened an educational establish-
ment. In this he was assisted by M. Kriisi, a village
schoolmaster — then twenty-five years of age — who had
shortlybeforecometo Burgdorf with twenty-eight orphans,
whose parents were the victims of the Austro-Russian
and French war. Kriisi had continued to teach these
children in a day-school in the castle at Burgdorf, under
the superintendence of M. Fischer, Secretary to the
Helvetian Minister of Public Instruction, who had been
sent by the Government to open a training college for
teachers in the castle, but, owing to the necessary funds
not being supplied, had been unable to do so. M. Fischer
became greatly interested in Pestalozzi's theories and
work ; had many talks with him ; and was the means
of bringing him and Kriisi together.
Pestalozzi was to conduct a boarding-school for the
children of the well-to-do people, and Kriisi was to con-
tinue his day-school. In a letter (February, 1801) to the
central Government at Bern he declares his aims to be : —
THE BURGDORF INSTITUTE. 83
(i) To pursue the development, as experience should
suggest, of his methods in the different branches of
public and private education ;
(2) To publish the results of his researches and
experiments, and to write, for the guidance of well-
meaning parents and teachers, such manuals as would
enable them to carry out his plans of instruction ;
and
(3) To train teachers in the theory and practice of
his work so that they should be wise and skilful therein.
The means by which he proposed to carry out these
objects were : —
(i) The day-school at Burgdorf, of which Kriisi's
orphans were the nucleus ;
(2) The boarding-school just started, which was de-
signed for children of the middle and higher classes ;
(3) A teachers' training college (normal school) such
as had been proposed under M. Fischer ; and
(4) An orphan asylum — to be supported by private
subscriptions, and the profits, if any, from the boarding-
school, and the sale of books.
Assisted by two other teachers, Pestalozzi and Kriisi
soon began successfully to realise these aims and ends.
On the first day of the year 1801, at the request of his
friend Gessner, a bookseller of Zurich, he wrote an
account of his experiments and work up to this point
under the title : How Gertrude Teaches her Children ; an
A ttempt to give Directions to Mothers how to Instruct their
own Children. This is really an autobiography and ex-
position of his theories. There is no Gertrude, other
than Pestalozzi himself; and there are no children,
other than all children. With the contents of this
book we shall deal later. It was published in October,
6*
84 PESTALOZZI.
1801 ; attracted much attention ; made many converts ;
and led several enthusiasts to go to Burgdorf to see
Pestalozzi and study his work.
Besides this, perhaps the most profound and import-
ant of his writings, the following books were issued
from the institution at Burgdorf: (i) Help for Teaching
Spelling and Reading (1801) ; (2) Pestalozzi' s Elementary
Books (iSo^), in six parts, viz., (a) The ABC of Intuition,
or Intuitive-instruction in the Relations of Number (three
parts) ; {h) Intuitive-instruction in the Relations of Dimen-
sions (two parts) ; and (c) The Mothers' Manual, or Guide to
Mothers in Teaching their Children how to Observe and Thijtk
(one part). The last three {a, b and c) are teachers'
handbooks on the elements of arithmetic, geometry
and language. It has been said of them that those
who really needed such books would, by the aid of
the books themselves, neither understand the prin-
ciples nor use the exercises properly ; whilst those who
understood the principles and exercises would not need
the books.
The whole work of teaching, and writing the text-
books, was carried on by Pestalozzi and three assistants,
viz., Kriisi, of whom we have already spoken ; Tobler,
who was invited by Pestalozzi, at Kriisi's suggestion,
to help him in the teaching of writing ; and Buss, who
was asked by Tobler, at the suggestion of Kriisi, to
assist Pestalozzi in the teaching of drawing.
Their school-work was inspected by a commission
appointed by the " Society of the Friends of Education "
• — which financed Pestalozzi — in whose report are these
remarks: " The first thing we noticed was that Pesta-
lozzi's pupils learn to spell, read, write and calculate
quickly and well, achieving in six months results which
REPORTS ON THE TEACHING AT BURGDORF. 85
an ordinary village schoolmaster's pupils would hardly
attain in three years. It is true that schoolmasters are
not usually men like Pestalozzi, nor do they discover
assistants like those of our friend. But it appears to
us that this extraordinary progress depends less upon
the teachers than the method of teaching. . . .
" Who does not know how ready the youngest
children are to give everything a name ; to put things
together, and then to take them to pieces again, for
the sake of fresh re-arrangements ? Who does not
remember that he preferred drawing to writing ? Who
does not know that the most unlearned men are often
the quickest at mental reckonings ? Who does not
know that children, both boys and girls, delight — almost
as soon as they can walk — in playing at soldiers, and
in other forms of exercise ?
*' It is on these simple and well-known facts that
Pestalozzi bases his method of instruction. Were it
not for the fact that teachers are daily making the same
mistakes as others made before them, we should feel
inclined to inquire how it is that such an idea never
occurred to any one before."
An independent witness, a visitor to the institution —
Charles Victor von Bonstetten — says: "His children
have learned, in from six to ten months, writing, read-
ing, drawing, and a little geography and French, and
have also made astonishing progress in arithmetic.
They do everything cheerfully ; and their health seems
perfect. ... I look upon Pestalozzi's method as a
precious seed, still young and undeveloped, but full of
promise. The success the method has already obtained
should suffice to convince any impartial thinker of its
excellence, . . ,
S6 PESTALOZZI.
" The children know Httle, but what they know they
know well. In my opinion, there could be nothing better
than the Burgdorf school for children of eight or nine.
. . . The children are very happy, and obviously take
great pleasure in their lessons : which says a great deal
for the method."
A Nuremberg merchant, though at first prejudiced
against the work, is compelled to testify thus : *' I was
amazed when I saw children treating the most com-
plex calculations of fractions as the simplest matter in
the world. Problems which I myself could not solve
without careful work on paper, they did easily in their
heads, giving the correct answer in a few moments, and
explaining the method of working with ease and facility.
They seemed quite unconscious of having done any-
thing extraordinary."
The school was inspected by a public commission,
appointed by the local Council, in June, 1802. Their
report was drawn up by Ith, the President of the Bern
Council of Public Education. This report first deals
with Pestalozzi's principles, and declares that he ''has
discovered the real and universal laws of all elementary
teaching ". The moral and religious life of the es-
tablishment receives special praise ; as does the disci-
pline, which, it is remarked, is entirely based upon
affection.
M. Soyaux, of Berlin, who visited the institution in
August, 1802, thus speaks of certain points about it, in
a pamphlet which he wrote : " His discipline is based
upon the principle that children must be allowed the
greatest possible liberty, and that only when they take
advantage of this liberty must they be interfered with.
, . . They are taught by ten masters, There are alsg
SUCCESS AND POPULARITY, 87
a certain number of foreigners at the castle, who are
there to study the method.
'* The institute is young, and Pestalozzi's principles
are still undergoing development. As they are not yet
mature, it causes the organisation of the establishment
to be still incomplete. Director and assistants are
working with all their power to perfect the undertak-
ing. One tries to improve certain appliances ; another
strives to find a natural way of teaching reading,
number, etc. Would that all educational institutions
presented such a picture of concord and harmony, and
showed the same zeal in advancing from progress to
progress."
At Burgdorf Pestalozzi reached the highest point of
his success as a teacher and educationist, though not of
his fame. His popularity amongst his own people also
was at its greatest. On this popularity Dr. Biber re-
marks : " It is a fact, of which the life of almost every
distinguished man affords evidence, that the great mass
of the public, dull of comprehension and slow to
acknowledge merit, is in the same proportion unintelli-
gently lavish of its admiration, as soon as a man has
safely crossed the line of public opinion, and gone
through the ordeal of the critical ' sailor's dip '. This
proved to be the case with Pestalozzi. He who had
been an object of commiseration among philanthropic
wiseacres, and the butt of every bad joke from the lips
of the thoughtless and the unfeeling, was now extolled
to the skies as the man of the age ; and so high ran the
tide of popularity in his favour, that he was chosen to
be one of the deputies sent to Paris in 1802, pursuant
to a proclamation of the French Consul, in order to
frame a new constitution which should unite the con-
88 PESTALOZZI.
Aiding interests of Switzerland, and put a stop to its
internal dissensions." As a matter of fact he was
elected by one canton and one town.
Before his departure for Paris he published a politi-
cal pamphlet entitled Views on the Objects to which the
Legislature of Helvetia has chiefly to direct its attention,
in which he put forward some wise and moderate
views for reform and the remedy of existing evils. At
Paris he tried to interest Napoleon and his chief
ministers in his educational work, but the First Con-
sul declined to see him, and declared that he could
not be bothered about questions of A B C. On his
return to Burgdorf, Pestalozzi is said to have remarked
on being asked, "Did you see Bonaparte?" — "No,
I did not see Bonaparte ; and Bonaparte did not see
me".
The outcome of the visit of the Swiss deputies to
Paris was that the form of government of their country
was changed; the " Executive Directory" of five mem-
bers was dissolved; an annual assembly of deputies (with
limited powers) substituted ; and large powers of self-
government restored to the cantons — the Act of Media-
tion. Two results of the new order of things were that
Pestalozzi was turned out, on 22nd August, 1804, of
the castle at Burgdorf, which was required for the
canton Government offices ; and there was no longer
any central national authority to assist him in his
work. However, several towns made generous offers
to him if he would go to them with his school. The
canton De Vaud gave him the choice of several castles,
which had previously been the residences of deputy
governors. The Government of the canton of Bern
offered Pestalozzi the use of the old Johanniter monas-
AT MUNCHEN BUCHSEE. 89
tery at Munchen Buchsee — a few miles north-west of
Bern, and near to Fellenberg's school.
Pestalozzi decided to take his upper school to Yverdon,
and to send his lower school to Munchen Buchsee ; since
he only had the promise of one year's tenancy of the
old monastery. It was arranged — by his staff, and ap-
parently without his knowledge, in the first instance —
that de Fellenberg should have the practical control of
the institution, while Pestalozzi was to act as educa-
tional adviser. This he says "was not without my
consent, but to my profound mortification ". It was
impossible that such an arrangement for such a man
as Pestalozzi could turn out well. Soon differences
and difficulties arose between Pestalozzi and de Fellen-
berg.
Finally the whole of the members of the institution at
Burgdorf were transferred to Yverdon, and were glad to
be once more under the care of "Father Pestalozzi".
The teachers declared that they preferred the want of
government under him to the good government of de
Fellenberg — the "man of iron" as Pestalozzi called
him.
Ramsauer says of his stay at Munchen Buchsee : " I
was unhappy for the first time in my life. I was still
table-boy [servitor, i.e., one paying for his schooling by
certain domestic services] and under-master, but I had
nobody to comfort my heart. We missed more than
anything else the love and warmth which vivified every-
thing at Burgdorf, and made everybody so happy. With
Pestalozzi himself it was the heart which dominated
everything : with Fellenberg the mind. Nevertheless,
Munchen Buchsee had its good points too — there was
more order there, and we learned more than at Burgdorf,
go PESTALOZZI.
" In February, 1805, to my great delight, Pestalozzi
sent for me to go back to him at Yverdon, where I once
more found a father's affection and my dear masters Kriisi
and Buss. A few months later the whole institute had
rejoined Pestalozzi at Yverdon Castle."
CHAPTER VI.
YVERDON, 1805-1825.
At Yverdon Pestalozzi reached the summit of his fame
and found the grave of his practical work. In the
institute at Yverdon the large scheme which had been
drawn up for Burgdorf was not attempted, but all efforts
were concentrated on the education of the pupils who
came to the castle, with the result that greater success
than ever before was, at first, obtained. Pupils came
from England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and
Spain. Deputations were sent from many countries to
study and report on the work. Private individuals went
from all parts, some taking pupils with them, to see the
great things which were being done. Amongst these
were Froebel (with pupils), Herbart, Dr. Mayo (founder
of the famous Pestalozzian school at Cheam — with
pupils). Dr. Bell (author of The Madras System), Robert
Owen, Lord Brougham, Karl von Raumer (the great
German historian of education — with a pupil), Karl
Ritter, M. Jullien (writer on Pestalozzi's work), M.
Guillaume (biographer of Pestalozzi), Miss Edgeworth
(author of Practical Education) and many others.
The Emperor of Russia sent him this letter : —
**SiR,
'' The method of teaching pointed out in your
works, and practised in the institute of which you are
91
92 PESTALOZZI.
the founder, have appeared to me in every way calculated
to extend true knowledge and to produce enlightened in-
structors. Having made myself acquainted with the
results daily obtained by you, I have been able fully to
appreciate the utility of your labours. I feel pleasure in
being able to give you some distinguished proof of the in-
terest with which I have viewed so valuable an under-
taking, by creating you a Chevalier of the Order of St.
Wladimir of the fourth class, of which I herewith send
you the decoration, accompanied with the assurance of
my consideration.
"(Signed) Alexander.
*'Novr. i6, 1814."
The Prussian Government sent seventeen young men
for a three years' course, to be trained as teachers ; so
that, as the Minister writes to Pestalozzi : " They will
be prepared not only in mind and judgment, but also in
heart, for the noble vocation which they are to follow,
and will be filled with a sense of the holiness of their
task, and with new zeal for the work to which you have
devoted your life ". Fichte, in his Addresses to the German
Nation, delivered in Berlin in 1807-8, declared that only
through an efficient system of national education could
national regeneration come ; and when asked which
existing institution of the actual world could do such a
work, he replied : " The course of instruction which has
been invented and brought forward by Henry Pestalozzi,
and which is now being successfully carried out under
his direction ". This was spoken in no spirit of unquali-
fied praise, for he did not hesitate to criticise adversely
several points in Pestalozzi's schemes.
About the same time the Queen of Prussia wrote, iq
THE STAFF AT YVERDON. 93
her private diary : '' I am Yea.dmg Leonard and Gertrude,
and I delight in being transported into the Swiss village.
If I could do as I liked I should take a carriage and
start for Switzerland to see Pestalozzi ; I should warmly
shake him by the hand, and, my eyes filled with tears,
would speak my gratitude. With what goodness, with
what zeal, he labours for the welfare of his fellow-
creatures ! Yes, in the name of humanity, I thank him
with all my heart."
Dr. Biber thus describes the inner life of the institute
during the earlier years at Yverdon : ** Persons of the
most different gifts and abilities, and of the most
opposite characters, were united together by the un-
affected love which Pestalozzi, in years a man verging
on the grave, but in heart and mind a genuine child,
seemed to breathe out continually, and to impart to all
that came within his circle. His children forgot that
they had any other home, his teachers that there was any
world beside the institution. Even the eldest members
of this great family, men who had attained all the
maturity of manhood, venerated Pestalozzi with all the
reverence of true filial affection, and cherished towards
each other a genuine brotherly feeling. . . .
" Teachers and children were entirely amalgamated :
they not only slept in the same rooms, and shared to-
gether all the enjoyments and labours of the day ; but
they were on a footing of perfect ease and familiarity.
There was no pedantic superiority, no foppery of con-
descension, on the part of the teacher ; nor was there in
the pupils the slavish humility of fear, or the arrogant pre-
sumption of an equaHty which does not exist in the
nature of things. The same man that read a lecture
on history one hour, would, perhaps, in the next sit on
94 PESTALOZZI.
the same form with his pupils in a lesson of arithmetic
or geometry ; nay he would, without compromising his
dignity, request their assistance, and receive their help.
Such facts were of daily occurrence in a house to which
every one was a teacher of what he knew, and every
one, even the head himself, a learner of what he knew
not. [Froebel used thus to sit as a pupil amongst the
boys.]
" Pestalozzi's example operated like a spell ; and his
teachers submitted in his house to arrangements which
the same men, perhaps, would nowhere else have been
able to endure. They had the immediate inspection of
the different apartments, nay of the beds and clothes, as
well as of the books of the children. In the morning
every teacher assisted those that were especially com-
mitted to his care, as far as their age might require it,
in washing and dressing themselves ; which being done,
he conducted them to the great hall, where the whole
family was assembled for morning service. During the
day he lost sight of them only while they were engaged
in lessons with other teachers; but at meals, and in the
hours of recreation, he joined them again ; he partici-
pated in their plays, accompanied them in their walks,
and at the close of the day, followed them again to
evening prayers, and thence to bed. Yet in all this,
there was on the part of the pupils perfect freedom ;
they were not forced to be with their teacher : but their
teacher was always ready to be with them ; and as his
presence imposed upon them no artificial restraint, they
delighted in his company."
The actual order of the day for the pupils was : " In
the morning, half an hour before six the signal was given
for getting up. Six o'clock found the pupils ready for
DAILY ROUTINE AT YVERDON. 95
their first lesson, after which they were assembled for
morning prayer. Between this and breakfast the
children had time left them for preparing themselves for
the day ; and at eight o'clock they were again called to
their lessons, which continued, with the interruption of
from five to seven minutes' recreation between every
two hours, till twelve o'clock. Half an hour later
dinner was served up, and afterwards the children
allowed to take moderate exercise till half-past two ;
when the afternoon lessons began, and were con-
tinued till half-past four. From half-past four till five
there was another interval of recreation, during which
the children had fruit and bread distributed to them.
At five the lessons were resumed till the time of
supper, at eight o'clock, after which, the evening prayer
having been held, they were conducted to bed about
nine.
"The hours of recreation were mostly spent in inno-
cent games on a fine common, situated between the
castle and the lake, and crossed in different directions
by beautiful avenues of chestnut and poplar trees. On
Wednesday and Sunday afternoons, if the weather per-
mitted it, excursions of several miles were made through
the beautiful scenery of the surrounding country. In
summer the children went frequently to bathe in the
lake, the borders of which offered, in winter, fine op-
portunities for skating.
" In bad weather they resorted to gymnastic exercises
in a large hall expressly fitted up for that purpose. This
constant attention to regular bodily exercise, together
with the excellent climate of Yverdon, and the sim-
plicity of their mode of living, proved so effectual in
preserving the health of the children, that illness of
g6 PESTALOZZI.
any kind made its appearance but very rarely, notwith-
standing the number of pupils amounted at one time
to upwards of a hundred and eighty."
Professor Vulliemin, in his recollections of the time
he spent as a pupil under Pestalozzi at Yverdon, says :
" It [the castle] was built in the shape of a huge square,
and its great rooms and courts were admirably adapted
for the games as well as the studies of a large school.
Within its walls were assembled from a hundred and
fifty to two hundred children of all nations, who divided
their time between lessons and happy play. It often
happened that a game of prisoner's base, begun in the
castle court, would be finished on the grass near the
lake. In winter we used to make a mighty snow-
fortress, which was attacked and defended with equal
heroism.
"Early every morning we went in turns and had
a shower of cold water thrown over us. We were
generally bare-headed, but once, when a bitterly cold
wind was blowing, my father took pity on m.e, and
gave me a hat. My companions no sooner saw it
than they raised the shout, ' A hat, a hat ! ' It
was quickly knocked off my head, and a hundred
hands sent it flying about the playground and corri-
dors, till at last it went spinning through a window and
fell into the river that flows by the walls of the castle.
It was carried away to the lake and I never saw it
again.
" Our masters were for the most part young men,
and nearly all ' sons of the revolution,' who had grown
up around Pestalozzi, their father and ours. There
were, indeed, a few educated men and scholars who
had come to share his task ; but, taken altogether.
PUPILS' LIFE AT YVERDON. 97
there was not much learning. I myself heard Pesta-
lozzi boast, when an old man, of not having read any-
thing for forty years. Nor did our masters, his first
pupils, read much more than Pestalozzi himself. Their
teaching was addressed to the understanding rather
than the memory, and had for its aim the harmonious
cultivation of the germs implanted in us by Providence.
' Make it your aim to develop the child,' Pestalozzi was
never tired of repeating, ' and do not merely train him
as you would train a dog, and as so many children in
our schools are often trained.'
" Our studies were almost entirely based on num-
ber, form and language. Language was taught us
by the help of sense-impression ; we were taught to
see correctly, and in that way to form for ourselves a
just idea of the relations of things. What we had
thoroughly understood we had no trouble to express
clearly.
" We had to discover the truths of geometry for our-
selves. After being once put in the way of it, the end
to be reached was pointed out to us, and we were left
to work alone. It was the same with arithmetic, which
we did aloud, without paper. Some of us became
wonderfully quick at this, and as charlatanism pene-
trates everywhere, these only were brought before the
numerous strangers that the name of Pestalozzi daily
attracted to Yverdon. We were told over and over
again that a great work was going on in our midst,
that the eyes of the world were upon us, and we readily
believed it."
De Guimps gives this account of the daily routine,
etc., for the boys: ''At seven o'clock, after the first
lesson, the pupils washed themselves in the courtyard,
7
98 PESTALOZZI.
The water, pumped from the well, ran through a long
pipe with holes on both sides, from which each child
received a pure, fresh stream— jugs and basins being
unknown. After our toilet came breakfast, consisting
of soup. Lessons began again at eight. At ten came
an interval for rest, when any one who was hungry
could get dried fruit and bread from Mrs. Kriisi. At
noon there was an hour's recreation for bathing or
prisoner's base on the grass behind the lake. At one
o'clock dinner of soup, meat and vegetables. Lessons
again from half-past one to half-past four. Then the
afternoon meal ; either of cheese, fruit, or bread-and-
butter. Each could take his share away with him, and
eat it where he liked during the play-hour, which
lasted till six o'clock, and which was passed, when the
weather was fine, either behind the lake or in the large
garden adjoining the castle, where every child has his
own little garden plot. From six to eight o'clock more
lessons, and then supper, which was much the same as
dinner. . . . The food, though not very delicately pre-
pared, was plain, wholesome and abundant. ...
"The pupils were allowed very considerable liberty.
As the two doors of the castle were open all day, and
there was no porter, they could go in and out at all
hours as if they were at home, and they did not abuse
this freedom. The lessons generally lasted ten hours a
day. No one lesson was longer than an hour, and they
were all followed by a short interval, during which the
classes usually changed rooms. Some of the lessons
consisted of gymnastic exercises, or some sort of
manual work, such as cardboard work or gardening.
The last hour of the day was a free hour, given up to
what the pupils called their own work. They could do
PUPILS LIFE AT YVERDON. 99
anything they wished — draw, read geography, write
letters, or arrange their note-books. . . .
" Pestalozzi's rooms were on the second floor of the
north front. He often invited the masters there to take
coffee with him, and not infrequently held receptions
in the evening, to which some of the pupils were
asked. . . . The end of the year was devoted to making
New Year albums to send to parents, containing
drawings, maps, mathematical problems, fragments of
history, descriptions of natural objects, and literary
compositions. On New Year's day . . . the pupils of
each class decorated their room, transforming it into a
woodland scene, with cottage, chapel, ruins, and some-
times a fountain, which was so arranged as to play when
Pestalozzi came in. Fir-branches, ivy and moss were
fetched in large quantities from the neighbouring forests,
and transparencies, with emblems and inscriptions,
were secretly prepared ; for the decoration of each room
was to be a surprise, not only to Pestalozzi, but to the
pupils of the other classes. Songs were also sung in
honour of Pestalozzi. The principal idea in most of the
inscriptions was : * In summer you take us to see
nature : to-day we try to bring nature to see you '.
Frequently, on this day, the pupils performed a
dramatic piece, the subject generally being one of the
great episodes from Swiss history of mediaeval times.
For these plays the actors made their own costumes
and weapons from coloured paper and cardboard."
The following extracts from the diary of Merian, of
Basle, a pupil from 1806 to 1810, give a peep into the
domestic life at the castle : —
" I2th Jan., 1808. — Pestalozzi's birthday festival. At
the end of the day the richer pupils made a collection
7*
lOO PESTALOZZI.
amongst themselves for the poor of the town of Yverdon.
Mrs. Pestalozzi and Mrs. Kuster took charge of the
money, which amounted to four pounds. . . .
"30th Sept., 1809. — To-day is the fortieth anni-
versary of Father Pestalozzi's marriage. Great rejoic-
ings; discourse by Niederer; beautiful songs sung,
room decorated with garlands. Grand supper for three
hundred people in five rooms. Afterwards dancing,
opened by Mr. and Mrs. Pestalozzi alone, in the old-
fashioned way."
The curriculum included ancient and modern lan-
guages, geography, natural history, physical science,
mathematics, drawing, singing, history and religion.
Not all of these were taught according to the reformed
methods of Pestalozzi, but only geography, mathe-
matics, spelling, perspective drawing and singing.
Pestalozzi's Elementary Books were here used only
for beginners, and the individual teachers were left to
apply the principles to their own teaching so as to make
their instruction more and more " mentally intuitive ".
Some of the courses which were thus worked out by the
teachers themselves were published in the form of
manuals on arithmetic, geometry and perspective
drawing — by Kriisi, Ladomus, Ramsauer and others.
One such manual was published in Dublin in 1821, and
has this title-page: ^^ Intuitive Mental Arithmetic ^
theoretical and practical, on the principles of H.
Pestalozzi, by L. Du Puget, late a student and teacher,
at his institute, at Yverdon, in Switzerland, and, at
present, a master in the establishment at Abbeyleix, in
Ireland ". In the preface is this interesting paragraph :
" It may be necessary to give the meaning of the word
Intuition as used in this work. In Qi;"de?- to fix the
TEXT-BOOKS USED AT YVERDON. lOI
attention of the children and to give them clear ideas
of number, it has been found extremely useful to
calculate with pebbles, beans, marbles, etc., and this has
been termed the teaching of Intuition or the Intuitive
method."
Certain books drawn up by Joseph Schmid (the
mathematical teacher of the institute), and approved by
Pestalozzi and his staff, are practically authorised and
improved editions of the Elementary Books. These were
intended to be aids for teachers, and included : (i) The
Elements of Drawing ; (2) The Elements of Form and
Size, commonly called Geometry (in three parts) ; (3) The
Elements of Number, forming the basis of Algebra ; (4)
The Elements of Algebra ; and (5) Application of Number
to Space, Time, Value and Ciphers. A book on similar
lines, a Manual of Elementary Geography, was published
by Henning (a biographer of Pestalozzi), one of the
young men sent from Prussia to be trained under
Pestalozzi. Pfeiffer and Nageli, both teachers at the
institute, drew up a series of exercises in singing,
together with some simple tunes specially written for
an educational course.
The results of the curriculum were necessarily bad.
As Raumer says : ** Most of the teachers of the institu-
tion might be regarded as so many separate and inde-
pendent teachers, who had indeed received their first
instruction there, but who had passed much too soon
from learning to teaching, and wished to see how they
could fight their way through. There was never any
such thing as a real pedagogical lecture. Under such
a course of training, it could not happen otherwise than
that some of the teachers should strike into peculiar
paths ; of this Schmid gave an example. But it was
102 PESTALOZZI.
an equally necessary consequence that the usual
characteristic of such teachers should make itself ap-
parent : namely, a great want of self-knowledge and
of a proper modest estimate of their own labours.
" ' Man only learns to know himself in man.' I must
know what others have done in my department of
science, in order that I may assign the proper place
and rank to my own labours. It is incredible how many
of the mistaken views and practices of Pestalozzi and
his teachers sprang from this source."
At the other extreme was the work of the subordinate
teachers. These were supposed rigidly to follow the
Elementary Books, neither subtracting from nor adding
to them. Moreover, though they worked willingly and
for the love of Pestalozzi, and the work's sake, they
were sadly overworked. Ramsauer — who was first a
boy under Pestalozzi at Burgdorf, and later one of his
most loyal and devoted assistants — thus describes the
teachers' work: "They were to help to bear every
burden, every unpleasantness, every domestic care, and
to be responsible for everything. Thus, for example,
in their leisure hours (that is, when they had no lessons
to give) they were required at one time to work some
hours every day in the garden, at another to chop wood
for the fire, and, for some time, even to light them in
the morning, or transcribe, etc. ; there were some years
in which no one of us was found in bed after three
o'clock in the morning ; and we had to work, summer
and winter, from three in the morning till six in the
evening." Ramsauer's own time-table shows that he
was almost wholly occupied with official duties from
two or three o'clock in the morning till nine in the
evening.
SUBORDINATE MASTERS' WORK. 103
De Guimps tells us that " the youngest masters, who
were generally Burgdorf pupils, were in charge out of
school. They slept in the dormitories, and, in recrea-
tion time, played with the pupils with as much enjoy-
ment as the children themselves. They worked in the
garden with them, bathed with them, walked with
them, and were in every respect on the friendliest
terms with them. They were divided into sets, each
set taking its turn every third day, for this superintend-
ence kept them busy from morning till night. . . . The
week's work was reviewed at a general meeting of the
teachers every Saturday. . . .
" When we consider the material conditions of the
life of the masters in the Yverdon institute we can have
no doubt either of their devotion to Pestalozzi and his
work or of the lofty and disinterested motives which first
attracted them to him, and then kept them with him.
Their lodging was even more primitive than their living.
Some of the oldest of them lived outside the castle, but
the rest had not even a private room, and when they
wanted to work alone, they had to construct little
wooden cabins in the upper, uninhabited storeys of the
round towers which crowned the four corners of the old
building."
To endure such labour and conditions of labour was
indeed a tribute to their own worth ; and not less to
the fine influence of Pestalozzi. As Dr. Biber remarks :
'* To render them fit and willing to fill their stations in
this manner, required ... a deep sense to be awakened
within them of the exalted and responsible character
of their office, and their zeal needed persevering en-
couragement from the highest motives. For this pur-
pose, Pestalozzi endeavoured to make the teaching of
I04 PESTALOZZI.
others a source of instruction : the government of others
a means of moral improvement to themselves. On two
evenings in the week he met all the teachers, except
such as were at the time necessarily engaged with the
pupils, in a general assembly, alternately devoted to
the general means of instruction and discipline, and of
the individual state of each pupil."
Another serious practical difficulty was the fact that
two different languages had to be spoken. In i8og, of
the pupils about sixty per cent, were Swiss, the remainder
being made up of Germans, French, Russians, Italians,
Spaniards, Americans and English. There were fifteen
teachers, nine of whom were Swiss; and thirty-two
persons who were studying Pestalozzi's method, seven
of whom were natives of Switzerland. Raumer writes :
"With such a medley of children, the institution was
devoid of a predominant mother-tongue, and assumed
the mongrel character of a border-province. Pestalozzi
read the prayers every morning and evening, first in
German, then in French ! At the lessons in the German
language, intended for German children, I found French
children who did not understand the most common
German word." Dr. Mayo, speaking of several English-
men who were staying at the institute, writes: "We
rise between six and seven, prayers at seven, soon after
breakfast in a large room, just when we please to go
there. Some of the masters drop in, in the same way,
and English, French, German and Latin are perhaps
all talked in succession."
Still more difficult was it to carry out a system of
education based upon the principle that the pupil must
be taught in such a way that at every step of his
development the instruction is exactly suited to his
TOO MUCH DONE FOR SHOW. IO5
needs, when pupils were admitted at all ages ; in all
conditions of advancement ; and with every variety of
previous training. What the principle required was
that the pupil should begin, continue and end his
education under the influence of the system. It was
impossible to uproot the bad habits of many years
of wrong training, and begin everything afresh. The
attempt to pour new wine into old bottles had its
inevitable result.
Added to these obstacles to thorough and successful
work were the interruptions and distractions of many
visitors. Ramsauer says : *' It was nothing unusual
in summer for strangers to come to the castle four or
five times in the same day, and for us to have to interrupt
the instruction to expound the method to them ". Writ-
ing from Yverdon, on 25th September, 1819, Dr. Mayo
says: ''We have had a great many English here
lately. I spent the whole day with them, showing
them the institution in the morning." These visitors
included Lord and Lady Elgin and family (" a troop of
Elgins "), Lady Ellenborough ("with a large party"),
" an old Oxford friend," " several young men," and
others. Pupils were sometimes taken to the hotel at
which an important personage was staying, so that a
demonstration might be given to him.
Again, it is neither unkind nor unfair to say that both
Pestalozzi and his staff were somewhat overcome by
the royal and exalted approval and patronage which
their work received, and by the almost universal applause
showered upon it. They seem almost to have thought
themselves as wise and wonderful as their ignorant
(educationally) and impulsive admirers deemed them ;
and they developed the pride which goes before a fall.
I06 PESTALOZZI.
Pestalozzi himself speaks of '* the great delusion under
which we lay at that period, namely, that all those things
in regard to which we had strong intentions and some
clear ideas, were really as they ought to have been, and
as we should have liked to make them. . . . We an-
nounced publicly things which we had neither the
strength nor the means to accomplish. There are
hundreds and hundreds of these vain boastings of which
I do not like to speak."
The enemies and opponents of the work were em-
boldened by such confirmations of their criticisms ; and
the public journals in Switzerland attacked the institu-
tion. Referring to this, Pestalozzi says that the papers
began " to speak decidedly against our pretensions,
asserting that what we did was by no means what we
considered and represented ourselves to be doing. But
instead of penitently returning to modesty, we sturdily
resisted this opposition. While participating in this
temerity, which is now incomprehensible to me, I began
to be sensible that we were treading in paths which
might lead us astray, and that, in truth, many things in
the midst of us were not as they should have been, and
as we endeavoured to make them appear in the eyes of
the world."
Pestalozzi and his staff appealed to the Swiss Diet
to appoint a commission to formally examine the in-
stitution. Their request was granted and three com-
missioners appointed, viz.^ M. Merian, a member of the
executive council of Basle ; M. Trechsel, professor of
mathematics at Bern ; and Pere Girard, the famous
educational reformer of Fribourg. These visited the
institute in November, i8og, and spent five days in
examining it. They steadfastly refused to inquire into
A HOUSE DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF. lO/
the aims and principles of the work, and confined them-
selves wholly to the results produced. After their in-
spection they Wrote a report which was presented to the
Diet in 1810 : a vote of thanks, on behalf of the nation,
was accorded to Pestalozzi ; and the report ordered to be
printed. Whilst recognising many merits in the work
of the institution, the commissioners pointed out many
things which they thought might be improved ; and, on
the whole, it may be said that the work was damned
with faint praise. A long and heated controversy
between the opponents and friends (including the staff)
of the school took place in the public journals, and by
pamphlets and books, the result of which was anything
but favourable to the success of the work or harmony
amongst the workers.
Much light is thrown upon what we may call the
domestic affairs of the institution by Ramsauer, himself
a member of it. He writes : "In Burgdorf [where
Ramsauer was one of the pupils] an active and entirely
new life opened to me ; there reigned so much love and
simplicity in the institution, the life was so genial — I
could almost say patriarchal ; not much was learned,
it is true, but Pestalozzi was the father, and the teachers
were the friends of the pupils. ... At Yverdon ... we
all felt that more must be learned than at Burgdorf;
but we all fell, in consequence, into a restless pushing
and driving, and the individual teachers into a scramble
after distinction. Pestalozzi, indeed, remained the same
noble-hearted old man, wholly forgetting himself, and
living only for the welfare of others, and infusing his
own spirit into the entire household. ... So long as
the institution was small, Pestalozzi could, by his
thoroughly amiable personal character, adjust at once
I08 PESTALOZZI.
every slight discordance, he stood in much closer relation
with every individual member of the circle, and could
thus observe every peculiarity of disposition, and influ-
ence it according to necessity.
"This ceased when the family life was transformed
in the institution into a constitutional state existence.
Now the individual was more easily lost in the crowd :
thus there arose a desire, on the part of each, to make
himself felt and noticed. Egotism made its appearance
every day in more pointed forms. Envy and jealousy
rankled in the breasts of many."
Of these things Pestalozzi himself was not unaware.
When the institution was removed from Munchen Buch-
see to Yverdon, he recognised that it contained " the
seeds of its own internal decay in the unequal and con-
tradictory character of the abilities, opinions, inclinations
and claims of its members ; although as yet this dis-
sension had not done anything but declare itself general,
unrestrained and fierce. . . . But the seeds of our decay
had been sown, and though they were still invisible in
many places, had taken deep root. . . .
" Led aside by worldly temptations and apparent
good fortune from the purity, simplicity and innocence
of our first endeavours, divided among ourselves in
our inmost feelings, and from the first made incapable,
by the heterogeneous nature of our peculiarities, of ever
becoming of one mind and one heart in spirit and in
truth for the attainment of our objects, we stood there
outwardly united, even deceiving ourselves with respect
to the real truth of our inclination to this union. And
unfortunately we advanced, each one in his own manner,
with firm, and at one time with rapid steps along a path
which, without our being really conscious of it, separ-
A HOUSE DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF. IO9
ated us every day further from the possibiHty of our
ever becoming united."
During the year 18 10 these personal differences
between members of the staff, which had been growing
for some time, became so acute that one of the most
important of them — Schmid, the mathematical teacher
and business manager — left the institute. This caused
very great grief to Pestalozzi. Again also his extravagant
generosity and unbusiness-like habits brought him into
serious financial difficulties. By 1815 matters were so
bad that the staff, in despair, invited Schmid to return.
This was the beginning of the end. The domestic
quarrels were soon revived, with increased bitterness ;
lawsuits arose, one of which lasted seven years. Kriisi,
the most loyal and loving of his admirers and helpers,
left the institute in 1816 — writing this tender note of
farewell : " Father, my time of enjoying your presence
is past. I must leave your institution, as it is now
conducted, if I am not for ever to lose my courage
and strength to live for you and your work. For all
that you were to me and all that I was able to be to
you, I thank God ; for all my shortcomings, I pray God
and yourself to forgive me." Niederer, the ablest of all
the exponents of Pestalozzi's views, left him in 1817.
Kriisi afterwards established a private school for boys in
Yverdon. Five years later a reconciliation was brought
about; but the greatest possible mischief had been
done to the fair fame of the institution, and public
opinion and confidence had received a severe shock, in
consequence of the newspaper and controversial writings
connected with these quarrels.
Though such things were happening at home still
Pestalozzi's name and fame stood high in other countries,
I lO PESTALOZZI.
When the allied army, violating the country's neutrality,
passed through Switzerland to attack Napoleon, the
castle and other buildings at Yverdon were requisi-
tioned for military purposes. To escape this infliction
two town's deputies, accompanied by Pestalozzi, were
sent to ask that the town might be excused. Thanks
to Pestalozzi's influence — he was " received with most
extraordinary favour " — they were successful. Pupils
still came to the institute from other countries.
In 1816, M. Jullien took with him twenty-four
students from France ; though he stayed only a year,
owing, it is said, to the conduct of Schmid. Dr. Mayo
took several pupils from England to Yverdon in i8ig.
Mr. Greaves, an Englishman who did much for the
founding of infants' schools in England, joined the
institute and took part in its work. It is said that
about half a dozen poor children were sent from Eng-
land to the school.
Neither was Pestalozzi's ever-youthful energy quenched
or his hopeful spirit damped, and in 1818 he established
a Poor School at Clindy, a hamlet near Yverdon. This
had twelve pupils — neglected children — and was con-
ducted on the lines of the original Poor School at
Neuhof. ''They were to be brought up as poor boys,"
he says, " and receive that kind of instruction which
is suitable for the poor, including, amongst other things,
chopping wood and carting manure." Here Pestalozzi
was himself again. In a little world where he him-
self could be all and everything, he, though an old man
of seventy-two, repeated his greatest personal success.
" Old, absentminded, and incapable as he seemed in
ordinary affairs, he, as though by enchantment, gained
the attention and the affection of the children, and
THE CLINDY POOR SCHOOL. Ill
bent them entirely to his will " (Quick, Educational
Reformers).
The Clindy Poor School soon became famous ; and
in a few months there were thirty pupils. But unfortun-
ately, as it turned out, Pestalozzi, with what he calls
his *' unrivalled incapacity to govern," allowed the cur-
riculum to be more and more brought into line with that
at the institute ; other teachers took part in the work ;
paying pupils were admitted; and finally the whole
character of the school changed. Schmid then per-
suaded him to transfer the school to the Yverdon in-
stitute.
Pestalozzi had hoped, a little later on, to take the
children to Neuhof, and there re-establish for his declining
years the undertaking with which he had begun his life's
work. Each of the poor children had been bound over
to stay in the school for five years. When this time
expired not one remained. Of this he writes : '' The
illusion in my mind, as to the possibility of transplanting
to Neuhof an establishment in Yverdon of which not an
inch was in reality any longer mine, was now entirely
dispelled. To resign myself to this conviction, required
me to do no less than abandon all my hopes and aims
in regard to this project, as for me completely unattain-
able. I did so at last, and on 17th March, 1824, I
announced m}^ total inability further to fulfil the expecta-
tions and hopes which I had excited, by my projected
Poor School, in the hearts of so many philanthropists
and friends of education."
Within a year came the last sad blow: broken by
internal dissensions, and crushed by debt, the institute at
Yverdon had to be closed ; after having stood as the
beacon light of education for more than twenty years.
112 PESTALOZZI.
And now Pestalozzi, an old man of eighty and tired of
life, returns to Neuhof, where, exactly half a century
before, he had started his first Poor School. Well may
he exclaim : " Verily it was as if I were putting an end
to my life itself by this return, so much pain did it give
me".
CHAPTER VII.
THE "DEATH-SONG".
After the storm and stress of, perhaps, the sternest
fight that ever man fought to uphft his fellows by means
of education, Pestalozzi returned to his starting place
once more. Though he had in fact won a great world
victory for progress, he thought he was defeated, if not
disgraced. Even so his noble soul and ardent mind
would not be stilled. Once more he takes up his pen to
tell the truth, as he sees it, of his life and work ; and to
deliver yet again the message he bears. Now, as ever,
he does not spare himself, but freely and frankly admits
his many faults and failures : all he asks is that the
truth that is in him and his work shall be properly
recognised and appreciated.
No sooner did he arrive again at Neuhof than he
began to write his Swan's Song (or Death-Song). In
this he gives a final statement of his views on educa-
tion. He also wrote My ForUmes as Superintendent of
my Educational Establishments at Burgdorf and Yverdon ;
wherein he gives his own account of the happenings
at these places, and tries to show that Schmid was his
true friend and saviour. Whilst these writings are, as
would be expected, full of sadness and despondency,
113 8
114 PESTALOZZI.
they are b}^ no means the morbid meanderings of age
and decay. De Guimps speaks of the Swan's Song as
"one of his most remarkable works"; and Raumer,
who was well qualified to judge, says: ''These last
writings of Pestalozzi have been regarded by many as
the melancholy and languid outpourings of the heart of
a dying old man. As far as concerns the old man's
judgments on the institution, as it was at the time of
my stay at Yverdon, I consider them for the most part
highly truthful, and as affording evidence that he was
not deficient in manly clearness and penetration even
in his old age."
But these two works are but a fraction of his under-
takings in his last days. Being short of means, he pro-
posed to raise money by publishing editions of his work
in English and in French. So Schmid was sent to
Paris and London to get subscribers and arrange, if pos-
sible, for the publication of his works ; and even for a
new periodical in French. All this with a view to
carrying out his ever-cherished plan of a Poor School
at Neuhof. After fifty years' absence from Neuhof, one
of the first things he did on his return to it was to give
orders for the buildings for a Poor School. Whilst
these orders were being carried out, much too slowly
for his burning zeal, he constantly went and taught in
the village school at Birr; and once more interested
himself in the affairs of his old friends amongst the
peasants.
Of his personal appearance at this time we have an
account by Henning — one of his " old boys " — who
visited him at Neuhof, in August, 1825. ^^ says : " I
had not seen him for thirteen years, and found him
LAST DAYS AND DEEDS. II5
looking older certainly, but on the whole very little
changed. He was still active and strong, simple and
open ; his face still wore the same kindly, plaintive
expression ; his zeal for human happiness, and especi-
ally for the education of poor and little children, was as
keen as thirteen years before. ... In spite of the heat
he accompanied me to Lenzburg, and valiantly mounted
the two or three hundred steps leading to the castle.
. . . The vivacity of his speech and the vigour of all
his movements inspired me with the hope that the term
of his earthly existence was still far off. My heart was
full when I took leave of the kind old man. I shall
never forget the time that it was my good fortune to
spend with him."
For a meeting of the Helvetian Society — of which he
had been enthusiastically elected president the previous
year — in April, 1826, at Schinznach, he wrote an address
On Fatherland and Education. In November of the
same year he was present at a meeting of the Society
for the Promotion of Education, of Brugg, for which
he had written a paper entitled Attempt at a Sketch
on the Essence of the Idea of Elementary Education, and
dealing with the simplest means of educating child-
ren from the cradle to the sixth year, in the domestic
circle. The paper was read for him by the pastor of
Birr ; but afterwards Pestalozzi spoke with all his old
vigour and passionate zeal for the education of the little
ones.
In July, 1826, Pestalozzi and Schmid visited Zeller's
school for orphans, at Beuggen, where a touching
festival was arranged in his honour. The children re-
ceived him with singing ; and he was then offered an
8*
ii6
PESTALOZZI.
WANDERER'S EVENING PRAYER.
Goethe (1749-1832).
Very slowly.
f\^0!^^i^^
I I I r
Thou that art in high-est skies
I I
Ev' - ry pain and sor - row
:^^
::\-l-:--^.
:2^i:d=i=2fci-T-::^
3=^=^J=FE^=Fr=?
iHgi
3-=
--J
fr
::l=t;=3
33=3
P
P^ii^P^
still-ing ; Those whom dou
mE^
ble an - guish tries, Dou - bly
r r.l I
-P-^
L:^=lf^a-3i
J=^:
iPi^Hi^iiSI
^P^t-^j*F
with Thy sweet - ness
f^m
ss-z3Eij;
fill - ing : Why with pain and plea - sure
hea - ven, Come, oh,
I I
-hrA
come, with - in each breast.
,1 I I ,
i
?2=
^f"T
THE PASSING OF PESTALOZZI. II7
oak wreath, which, however, he would not accept, say-
ing, while tears were in his eyes : ** Not to me, but to in-
nocence, belongs this wreath". Most appropriately —
for it appeared in his first book, Leonard and Gertrude —
and most pathetically so — for it spoke of peace and rest
after storm and strife — one hymn sung by the children
was Goethe's " Wanderer's Evening Prayer". This
deeply affected Pestalozzi.
Beside all these activities he was working at an addi-
tional volume (the fifth) of Leonard and Gertrude ; a new
Manual for Mothers^ in which he gave them instructions
for educating a child up to its seventh year — a supple-
ment to his Book for Mothers ; and a book of elementary
exercises designed to teach children Latin in the same
way as they learn their mother-tongue.
Soon, and in strife, the end was to come : and terribly
sad was the closing scene. Pestalozzi's My Fortunes,
etc., gave rise to much newspaper correspondence ; and
it contained statements which, in defending Schmid,
caused great pain toNiederer. A friend of Niederer
published a pamphlet in defence of him. Pestalozzi
had taken no notice of the newspaper correspondence,
but when he saw in a Zurich paper a notice of the
pamphlet, with the remark: "It seems that Pestalozzi
is like certain animals who hide at sight of the stick ;
otherwise he would reply to these attacks," he was
seized with a most violent outburst of indignation, and
exclaimed: ''I can bear this no longer". He became
quite ill, and said to his doctor: "I feel that I am
going to die ; but I must live six weeks longer to
answer these terrible calumnies". In spite of his
condition — he suffered also from an organic com-
1 1 8 PESTALOZZI.
plaint — and his doctor's orders he insisted upon writ-
ing, whenever he could, till the pen dropped from his
hands. So serious became his state that the doctor
ordered his removal to Brugg so that he might be near
him.
On the 15th of February, 1827, when deep snow
covered the ground the poor old man was taken, well
wrapped up and in a closed sledge, to a room in
Brugg. The next day he had a violent attack of
pain, became delirious, and was unconscious for some
time. He was unable to speak after noon. Very
early the next morning he regained consciousness,
and seemed easy and composed. He helped to arrange
his bed and talked to those about him for nearly
an hour. Amongst his last words were these : '' My
children, you cannot carry out my work, but you can
do good to those about you ; you can give land to
the poor to cultivate. As for me I am soon to read
the book of truth. I forgive my enemies ; may
they find peace, even as I am now about to find the
peace which is eternal. I should have been glad
to live six weeks longer to finish my writing, and yet I
thank God for taking me away from this earthly life.
You, my children, remain quietly at Neuhof, and look
for your happiness in your home." About seven o'clock
in the morning he quietly passed away with a smile on
his lips.
When asked what sort of a monument he would like
he had said " a rough unhewn stone, such as I myself
have always been ". Nearly twenty years after his
death, in a niche in the church wall above his grave,
was placed a bust of him, and this epitaph : —
HIS EPITAPH. 119
Here rests
HENRY PESTALOZZI;
Born at Zurich on the 12th of January, 174.6,
Died at Brugg on the lyth of February, 1827.
Saviour of the poor at Neuhof,
Preacher to the people in Leonard and Gertrude,
Father of the orphans at Stanz,
Founder of the new folkschool
in Burgdorf and Munchenbuchsee,
Educator of Humanity at Yverdon.
Man, Christian, Citizen.
Everything for others, nothing for himself!
Blessings on his name !
TO OUR FATHER PESTALOZZI.
Grateful Aargau.
CHAPTER VIII.
PESTALOZZI THE MAN.
Carlyle has finely said: "The history of what man
has accompHshed in this world, is at bottom the history
of the Great Men who have worked here. They were
the leaders of men, these great ones ; the modellers,
patterns, and in a wide sense creators, of whatsoever
the general mass of men contrived to do or to attain ;
all things that we see standing accomplished in the
world are properly the outer material result, the practi-
cal realisation and embodiment, of thoughts that dwelt
in the Great Men sent into the world. . . . We cannot
look, however imperfectly, upon a great man, without
gaining something by him. He is the living light-
fountain, which it is good and pleasant to be near.
The light which enlightens, which has enlightened the
darkness of the world ; and this not as a kindled lamp
only, but rather as a natural luminary shining by the
gift of Heaven ; a flowing light-fountain, as I say, of
original insight, of manhood and heroic nobleness. I
should say sincerity, a deep, great, genuine sincerity, is
the first characteristic of all men in any way heroic. . . .
A breaker of idols. ... It is the property of every Hero,
in every time, in every place and situation, that he come
back to reality; that he stand upon things, and not
shows of things " {On Heroes and Hero-worship).
130
PUPILS TESTIMONY. 121
We have already seen enough of his life to judge
whether Pestalozzi has any claims to be accounted a
hero of this sort. Let us never cease to remember that
it is the elements of greatness in a man which most
matter, and not the weaknesses which accompany them,
or the mistakes made in giving expression to them ; so
long as the greatness prevails. 'Twere better to have
been one-thousandth part as good as Pestalozzi, than a
thousand times better than the critic who thinks Pesta-
lozzi could not have been a great man, because he
made many and great mistakes. There is not one of
the conditions of greatness which Carlyle lays down
which Pestalozzi does not more or less fulfil. We,
therefore, acclaim him a Great Man, a Hero.
Let those who knew him bear witness to the manner
of man he was, as to his virtues. Buss, one of his
earliest and faithful helpers, says: ''there was in his
expression something so great, that I viewed him with
astonishment and veneration. This, then, was Pesta-
lozzi ? His benevolence, the cordial reception he gave
to me, a perfect stranger, his unpretending simplicity,
and the dilapidated condition in which he stood before
me ; the whole man, taken together, impressed me
most powerfully. I was his in one instant. No man
had ever so sought my heart ; but none, likewise, has
ever so fully won my confidence." Karl Ritter (the
famous geographer), one of Pestalozzi's teacher-pupils,
says : " I have seen more than the Paradise of Switzer-
land, for I have seen Pestalozzi, and recognised how
great his heart is, and how great his genius ; never
have I been so filled with a sense of the sacredness of
my vocation and the dignity of human nature as in the
days I spent with this noble man ", Another pupil,
122 PESTALOZZI.
Professor Vulliemin, writes : *' We all loved him, for he
loved us all ; we loved him so warmly that when some
time passed without our seeing him, we were quite
troubled about it, and when he again appeared we could
not take our eyes off him . . . him whom we used to call
our Father Pestalozzi ". Yet another writes : '' I seem
still to see this kind old man . . . with such a quick,
tender glance in his eyes, and such a kind smile upon
his lips, that everybody felt attracted to him, men,
women and children gladly accepting his affectionate
embraces ".
He was a man full of the most devoted affection and
kindness. Ramsauer tells us that when he was ill
'' Pestalozzi reproached himself with being the cause ;
he knew he had worked me too much, and was
anxious to nurse me himself, as a father would nurse
his child ". Dr. Mayo describes how, when he was ill,
Pestalozzi was terribly uneasy ; he could not rest till
the symptoms declared themselves more favourable.
He said : ' J'ai en crainte, comme un pauvre diable '.
He comes early in the morning to my bedside ; kisses
my hand when I place it in his ; and when I tell him
I am better, he is quite delighted and exclaims ' Graces
a Dieu, Graces a Dieu ! ' "
Two or three incidents of his life throw interesting
side-lights on his character. One day some of Fellen-
berg's workmen brought to him a disreputable-looking,
raggedly clothed man, whom they had found lying in a
field, half dead with hunger and fatigue. The man
turned out to be Pestalozzi, who, in his enthusiasm for
collecting minerals, had wandered so far from home,
and so loaded his pockets and handkerchief with his
captures, that he had become exhausted, had lost his
CHARACTERISTIC INCIDENTS. 1 23
way, and finally collapsed beside a ditch. On another
occasion, when on a similar errand, he was seen by a
policeman wearily dragging himself along towards the
gates of Soleure, at evening. Taking him to be a
beggar, and suspicious of the character of such a ragged
and unkempt person, the policeman took him to the
magistrate's house. Here he had to wait a long time,
for the magistrate was out. To the amazement of the
policeman the magistrate recognised Pestalozzi, cordi-
ally greeted him and invited him to supper.
When he went with the deputation from Yverdon to
petition the allied sovereigns not to use the town's
buildings as hospital, he used the occasion for advocat-
ing his system. Finding himself in the presence of the
Czar and so many high officials, he at once began to
address them on the education of the poor, and the
liberation of the serfs. So absorbed was he in this task
that he pressed upon the Emperor until the latter was
driven into a corner of the room, and Pestalozzi was on
the point of actually button-holing him, when he sud-
denly remembered himself. Confusedly muttering an
apology he attempted to kiss the Emperor's hand, but
Alexander graciously embraced him.
On one occasion he determined, though very ill at the
time, to call on the King of Prussia (who was visiting
Neuchatel), to thank him for sending so many teacher-
students to Yverdon. Ramsauer went with him, and
relates that : " During the journey Pestalozzi had
several fainting fits, so that I was obliged to take him
from the carriage and carry him into a neighbouring
house. I constantly urged him to return home. * Hold
your tongue,' he said ; ' I must see the king even though
it should cost me my life. If I can bring about a better
124 PESTALOZZI.
education for a single Prussian child, I shall be fully
rewarded.' "
Once when he was ill in bed with a sharp attack of
rheumatism, the French Ambassador, Reinhardt, called
to see the institute at Burgdorf. Neither doctor nor
friends could persuade Pestalozzi to stay in bed. With
great difficulty, and much pain to himself, he was
dressed and almost carried from his room. No sooner
did he see the ambassador than he freed himself from
his supporters, and began earnestly to expound his
educational views to his visitor. The longer he talked,
the more vigorous and active he became ; so much so
that when he made an end of speaking, he had also
made an end of his rheumatism.
Dr. Mayo tells how, just before completing his seventy-
fifth year : " A girl belonging to his poor school [Clindy]
having died a few days ago, he attended her funeral,
leading the procession bare-headed, though the snow
was on the ground ".
So much as to the goodness of his heart and will ;
and now we will give some evidence about his intellec-
tual powers and general character. Baron de Guimps
says of Pestalozzi (at Yverdon): " He accosted every-
body with gentle kindliness. His conversation was
animated and clever, full of imagination and originality,
but difficult to follow on account of his pronunciation.
But he was never long the same, passing in a moment
from frank, open-hearted gaiety to profound and even
melancholy meditation. Always absent-minded and
preoccupied, he was a prey to a feverish restlessness,
and could never sit down for long together ; he used to
walk up and down the corridors of the castle, one hand
behind his back, or in the breast of his coat. . . . He
QUALITIES OF HEART AND MIND. 125
continued to work with indefatigable zeal at improv-
ing his ' method,' and making new applications of it.
Every morning, as early as two o'clock, he called an
under-master to his bedside to write from his dictation.
But he was rarely satisfied with his own work, and
made continual corrections, often starting afresh."
Ramsauer speaks thus of him : " On those occasions
[when members of the staff took coffee with him in Mrs.
Pestalozzi's room] he was generally very gay and full of
wit ; and his wit was often brilliant, for whatever he
did, he did thoroughly, giving himself up entirely to
the feelings of the moment. In the same half-hour he
would be extremely happy and extremely miserable,
gentle and caressing or serious and severe ; he did
nothing without enthusiasm."
This violent instability is shown in an incident re-
lated by De Guimps. " Pestalozzi was strangely im-
pressionable, and when once possessed by his favourite
idea of elevating the lower classes, he forgot everything
else. Some short time after the death of his wife [which
caused him the most profound grief and distress], one
of his old pupils, deeply moved by his loss, came to
see him. After a few words on the painful subject of
the visit, the old man began to speak of his new plans
and new hopes for the success of his method, and before
long, carried away by his illusions and enthusiasm, he
cried excitedly : ' I am swimming in a sea of joy ! ' "
Professor Vulliemin writes : " He is quick in grasping
principles, but is helpless in matters of detail ; he pos-
sesses the faculty, however, of putting his views with
such force and clearness that he has no difficulty in
getting them carried out. . . . He has no gift for guid-
ing this great undertaking [Yverdon], and yet it con-
126 PESTALOZZI.
tinues. . . . Even his speech, which is neither German
nor French, is scarcely intelligible, and yet in every-
thing he is the soul of this vast establishment. All his
words, and more especially his religious utterances,
sink deep into the hearts of his pupils, who love and
venerate him as a father."
Of his manner of expounding his theories De Guimps
says : " A hundred times have I heard the master him-
self explain his doctrine, and each time with a different
illustration. This profound philosopher had no love
for philosophical language, with which he had never
been familiar. Nor would he trust himself to use
formulas, of which indeed he had almost a dread. His
thought, which had been shaped in solitude and with no
help from books, was simply the outcome of observation
and reflection, and so he preferred to explain his views
as he had formed them, and attached much more weight
to concrete facts, particular examples, and comparisons,
than to abstractions and general ideas."
Dr. Biber's description is : " Pestalozzi was naturally
endowed with extraordinary powers of body and mind.
. . . His eye beaming with benevolence and honest
confidence, soon dispelled any unpleasant impressions
which the ruggedness of his appearance was calculated
to produce ; while his wrinkled countenance, which at-
tested in every feature the existence of a soul, to whom
life had been more than a thoughtless game, commanded,
with irresistible power, that reverence which his figure
could never have imposed. . . . His temper was cheer-
ful ; his wit ready and pointed, but without sting. His
conversation was at all times animated, but most so
when he entered into explanations of his views ; his
lively gesticulation was then called in to assist his utter-
QUALITIES OF HEART AND MIND. 12/
ance, especially when he spoke French, which not
being familiar to him, he was constantly tormented by a
vague consciousness of the inadequacy of his expressions
to the ideas which he had in mind. Such was the affa-
bility of his manner that it was impossible long to feel a
stranger in his presence, while the native dignity dif-
fused over his whole being, kept even the indiscreet at
a respectful distance.
" He was an affectionate husband and a kind father.
The privations to which his enterprising spirit, and his
unbusiness-like habits exposed his family, cost him many
a pang ; and much of the gloom and bitterness which
assailed him at different periods, especially towards the
close of his life, is to be attributed to the struggle of his
domestic affections against the generous disinterested-
ness of his public character. . . . The relation in which
Pestalozzi's character was most fully developed, and
appears to the greatest advantage, is that in which he
stood, in the most flourishing times of the institution at
Yverdon, to the whole family as their adoptive father,
and to his earliest disciples as their paternal friend."
M. Charles Monnard says of his intellectual power:
"Instead of the usual knowledge that any young man
of ordinary talent can acquire in two years, he under-
stood thoroughly what most masters were entirely
ignorant of : the mind of man and the laws of its de-
velopment, human affections and the art of arousing
and ennobHng them. He seemed to have almost an
intuitive insight into the development of human nature,
which indeed he was never tired of contemplating."
An almost ridiculous example of this combination of
deep insight and high purpose with profound ignorance
is given by Ramsauer, in connection with Pestalozzi's
128 PESTALOZZI.
enthusiasm for collecting stones. " Every fine day he
went to hunt for stones, which was his chief diversion.
I, too, had to pick up stones, although it seemed very
singular to me, for there were millions of them and I
did not know which to take. He did not understand
anything about them either, but he filled his pockets and
his handkerchief with them every day all the same, and
carried them home, though he never looked at them again
after that. He kept this hobby all his life ; and it was
hard to find a handkerchief in the whole school of Burg-
dorf which was not full of holes made by taking pebbles
home." But there was a great educational principle
involved, and out of such seemingly stupid actions grew
what we now know as nature study, school journeys,
and object lessons.
Raumer says that " Niederer saw in Pestalozzi a
man who had grasped with instinctive profundity the
subject of human culture, but had given only a frag-
mentary view of it, and who could not control ideas
which, as it were, possessed him ". Niederer himself
says: " In Pestalozzi there was as much of the woman
as of the man". There is much truth in Niederer's
views.
And now let us consider — for purposes of proper
criticism (of his work) — some of his weaknesses and
failings. Here we shall find much that needs careful
consideration. We must endeavour to see the man as
a whole, and to see him sanely ; neither lost to his
weaknesses because of our admiration of his great-
nesses, nor blind to his supreme abilities because of his
great failings. If we would see the pure jewel we must
clear away the dross. We shall try to recognise his
faults fully, only that thereby we may see his virtues
SOME FAILINGS. 1 29
still more fully : we seek but to separate the chaff from
the wheat.
No one was more conscious of Pestalozzi's faults
than Pestalozzi himself. From first to last he confesses
and deplores them. Of his first failures, at Neuhof, he
declares : ''The cause of the failure of my undertaking
lay essentially and exclusively in myself, and in my
pronounced incapacity for every kind of undertaking
what requires eminent practical ability. ... So great,
so unspeakably great, was the contrast between what I
wished to do and what I did and was able to do, which
arose from the disproportion between my good-natured
zeal, on the one side, and my mental impotency and
unskilfulness in the affairs of life on the other."
Writing to his fiancee, between 1767-69, he says :
"Those of my faults which appear to me the most im-
portant, in relation to the situation in which I may be
placed in after-life, are improvidence, incautiousness,
and a want of presence of mind to meet unexpected
changes in my future prospects, whenever they may
occur. ... I have other faults, arising from my irrita-
bility and sensitiveness, which oftentimes will not sub-
mit to my judgment. I very frequently allow myself to
run into excesses in praising and blaming, in my likings
and dislikings; I cleave so strongly to many things
which I possess, that the force with which I feel my-
self bound to them often exceeds the limits which
reason assigns ; whenever my country or my friend is
unhappy, I am myself unhappy. ... Of my great, and
indeed very reprehensible, negligence in all matters of
etiquette, and generally in all matters which are not in
themselves of importance, I need not speak ; any one
may see them at first sight of me."
9
I30 PESTALOZZI.
Such a confession is in itself a sign of greatness, for
it was done at a great price, under the fear of a still
greater : " I love you so truly from my heart, and with
such fervour, that this step has cost me much; I fear
to lose you, dear, when you see me as I am ; I had often
determined to be silent ; at last I have conquered my-
self". True self-criticism is the highest form of judg-
ment ; and few men are able thus to analyse their own
nature, and fewer still have the noble courage and
candour for such a confession.
Again, he says of his work at Burgdorf — in many
ways the most successful of all his school-work : "I
must say here openly what, during my years of mis-
fortune, I have often and often said secretly to myself,
that at the very first step I took in Burgdorf Castle I
was lost. I was indeed embarking on a career that
could only end in misfortune, seeing that the post I was
to occupy demanded the very strength and administra-
tive talents I so terribly lacked." Of the institute at
Yverdon he most modestly, yet truly said, to Professor
Vulliemin : " I cannot say that it is I who have created
what you see before you. Niederer, Kriisi and Schmid
would laugh at me if I called myself their master ; I
am good neither at figures nor writing ; I know nothing
about grammar, mathematics, or any other science ;
the most ignorant of our pupils know more of these
things than I do ; I am but the initiator of the institute,
and depend on others to carry out my views."
Professor Vulliemin rightly adds : '' He spoke the
truth, and yet without him nothing that is here would
exist ". Yes, though he was not their master, yet he
was their Master : he knew much of the soul of know-
ledge though little of its forms. He saw clearly, but he
SOME FAILINGS. I3I
could not express clearly and cogently. As he says in
How Gertrude Teaches her Children : '' My dear friend, if
you find that I do not succeed in explaining the theory
of my plans, I hope you will take the will for the deed,
seeing what pains I am taking. Ever since the age of
twenty I have been completely unfitted for systematic
metaphysics ; and fortunately for me, the practical
success of my plan does not depend upon this sort of
philosophy, which seems to me so toilsome." And yet
though this is true, it is also true that he wrote as only
a man of genius can write, and was recognised by the
most intellectual men of his day and generation as one
of themselves. But he lacked power and thoroughness
as a systematic, or scientific, thinker and writer. Like
most of the great pioneers he did not construct an
elaborate and finished system, but set forth, or rather
revealed, some of the great truths and principles which
must underlie such a system.
Froebel, who spent more than a year with Pestalozzi
at Yverdon, thus speaks of him and his work : " That
Pestalozzi was carried away and bewildered by this
great intellectual machine of his appears from the fact
that he could never give any definite account of his
idea, his plan, his intention. He always said, ' Go and
see for yourself ' (very good for him who knew how to
look, how to hear, how to perceive) ; ' it works splen-
didly ! ' It was at that time, indeed, surprising and in-
explicable to me that Pestalozzi's loving character did
not win every one's heart as it won mine, and compel
the staff of teachers to draw together into a connected
whole, penetrated with life and intellectual strength in
every part. His morning and evening addresses were
deeply touching in their simplicity. . . .
9 *
132 PESTALOZZI.
" The powerful, indefinable, stirring and uplifting
effect produced by Pestalozzi when he spoke, set one's
soul on fire for a higher, nobler life, although he had not
made clear or sure the exact way towards it, nor indi-
cated the means whereby to attain it. ... I soon saw
that much was imperfect ; but, notwithstanding this, the
activity which pressed forth on all sides, the vigorous
effort, the spiritual endeavour of life around me, which
carried me away with it as it did all other men who
came within its influence, convinced me that here I
should presently be able to resolve all my difficulties."
This inability on the part of Pestalozzi to follow his
ideas and plans to successful issues was pointed out to
Pestalozzi himself by his friend Lavater, who said to
him : '' When I only see a line of yours without a mis-
take, I will believe you capable of much, very much,
that you would like to be ". To Pestalozzi's wife Lava-
ter once said: " If I were a prince, I would consult
Pestalozzi in everything that concerns the people and
the improvement of their condition, but I would never
trust him with a farthing of money ".
Often too the enthusiasm of his hopes, the intensity
of his desires, and the overwhelming conviction of the
rightness and righteousness of his work, seem to have
so prejudiced his calmer and clearer judgment that he
believed the facts to be other than they were ; and even
went so far as to arrange things so that other people
should be led to see only the greatest successes of his
work. Ramsauer says : " As many hundred times in
the course of the year as foreigners visited the Pesta-
lozzi institution, so many hundred times did Pestalozzi
allow himself, in his enthusiasm, to be deceived by
them, On the arrival of every fresh visitor, he would
SOME FAILINGS. 1 33
go to the teachers in whom he placed most confidence
and say to them : ' This is an important personage, who
wants to become acquainted with all we are doing.
Take your best pupils and their analysis-books (copy-
books in which the lessons were written out) and show
him what we can do and what we wish to do '. Hun-
dreds and hundreds of times there came to the institu-
tion silly, curious and often totally uneducated persons,
who came because it was the ' fashion '. On their
account, we usualty had to interrupt the class instruc-
tion and hold a kind of examination. . . .
" In 1814, the aged Prince Esterhazy came. Pesta-
lozzi ran all over the house, calling out : ' Ramsauer,
Ramsauer, where are you ? Come directly with your
best pupils to the Maison Rouge (the hotel where the
Prince was). He is a person of the highest importance
and of infinite wealth ; he has thousands of bond-slaves
in Hungary and Austria. He is certain to build schools
and set free his slaves, if he is made to take an interest
in the matter.' I took about fifteen pupils to the hotel.
Pestalozzi introduced me to the Prince with these words :
* This is the teacher of these scholars, a young man who
fifteen years ago migrated with other poor children from
the canton of Appenzell and came to me. But he re-
ceived an elementary education, according to his indi-
vidual aptitudes, without let or hindrance. Now he is
himself a teacher. Thus you see that there is as much
ability in the poor as in the richest, frequently more ;
but in the former it is seldom developed, and even then
not methodically. It is for this reason that the im-
provement of the people's schools is so highly import-
ant. But he will show you everything we do better than
I could. I will, therefore, leave you for the present.'
134 PESTALOZZl.
" I now examined the pupils, taught, explained and
bawled, in my zeal, till I was quite hoarse, believing
that the Prince was thoroughly convinced about every-
thing. At the end of an hour Pestalozzi returned.
The Prince expressed his pleasure at what he had seen.
He then took leave, and Pestalozzi, standing on the
steps of the hotel, said : ' He is quite convinced, quite
convinced, and will certainly estabhsh schools on his
Hungarian estates '.
" When we had descended the stairs, Pestalozzi said :
' Whatever ails my arm ? It is so painful. Why, see !
it is quite swollen ; I can't bend it ! ' And in truth his
wide sleeve was now too small for his arm. I looked at
the key of the house-door of the Maison Rouge and said
to Pestalozzi : ' Look here ; you struck yourself against
this key when we were going to the Prince an hour ago '.
On closer observation it appeared that Pestalozzi had
actually bent the key by hitting his elbow against it.
In the first hour afterwards he had not noticed the
pain, for the excess of his zeal and his joy."
It is impossible to deny that, though due to the best
possible motives, there is much that is misleading and
mistaken in such methods of self-advertisement. They
savour too much of " tricks of the trade ". It is to such
exhibitions that Professor Vulliemin refers as " charla-
tanism " (see p. 97). Although Pestalozzi did such
things in the excitement of the moment, so to say, yet
in his calmer moods he recognised that he had mis-
represented matters ; frankly confessed his fault, and
corrected his misrepresentations. A good example of
this is seen in connection with the Report to Parents
which was published as a reply to the attacks on the
institute at Yverdon. In this everything and everybody
SOME FAILINGS. I35
are spoken of as though all was perfection and delight.
Afterwards Pestalozzi admitted that '' what is here
said ... is altogether a consequence of the great de-
lusion under which we lay at that period, namely, that
all those things in regard to which we had strong in-
tentions and some clear ideas, were really as they ought
to have been, and as we should have liked to make
them. . . . Neither did we perceive the weeds at that
time ; indeed, as we then lived, thought, acted and
dreamt, it was impossible that we should perceive them."
On this element in Pestalozzi's character Raumer
remarks: "The source of the internal contradiction
which runs through the life of Pestalozzi was, as we
saw from his own confessions, the fact that, in spite of
his grand ideal, which comprehended the whole human
race, he did not possess the ability and skill requisite
for conducting the smallest village school. His highly
active imagination led him to consider and describe as
actually existing in the institution whatever he hoped
sooner or later to see realised. His hopeful spirit fore-
saw future development in what was already accom-
plished, and expected that others would benevolently
do the same. This bold assumption had an effect on
many, especially on the teachers of the institution.
This appears to explain how, in the report on the insti-
tution, so much could be said bond fide which a sober
spectator was bound to pronounce untrue.
"But this self-delusion is never of long duration;
the period of overstrung enthusiasm is followed by one
of hopelessness and dejection. The heart of man is
indeed an alternately proud and dejected thing ! Such
an ebb and flow of lofty enthusiasm and utter despair
pervades the entire life of Pestalozzi."
1 36 PESTALOZZI.
It would almost seem that Pestalozzi's personal neglect
and disorder was a reflection of the want of order and
finish in the affairs of his mind. There is no doubt
that the former was very marked. Raumer thus speaks
of his first sight of Pestalozzi : " He was dressed in the
most negligent manner : he had on an old grey over-
coat, no waistcoat, a pair of breeches, and stockings
hanging down over his slippers ; his coarse bushy black
hair uncombed and frightful. His brow was deeply
furrowed, his dark brown eyes were now soft and mild,
now full of fire. You hardly noticed that the old man,
so full of geniality, was ugly ; you read in his singular
features long continued suffering and great hopes."
Ramsauer in describing his first day and lesson in
the school at Burgdorf tells how Pestalozzi " kept on
reading out sentences without halting for a moment.
As I did not understand a bit of what was going on,
when I heard the word ' monkey, monkey,' come every
time at the end of a sentence, and as Pestalozzi, who
was very ugly, ran about the room as if he was wild,
without a coat, and without a neck-cloth, his long shirt-
sleeves hanging down over his arms and hands, which
swung negligently about, I was seized with real terror,
and might soon have believed that he himself was a
monkey."
Professor Vulliemin thus describes him: "Imagine
. . . a very ugly man with rough bristling hair, his face
scarred with small-pox and covered with freckles, an
untidy beard, no neck-tie, his breeches not properly
buttoned and coming down to his stockings, which in
their turn descended on to his great thick shoes ; fancy
him panting and jerking as he walked ". Buss speaks
of "his stockings hanging down about his heels, and
PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND HABITS. 1 37
his coat covered with dust. His whole appearance was
so miserable that I was inclined to pity him."
Though affectionate and ordinarily of a genial and
cheerful temper he was at times uncertain and violent.
Ramsauer states that " often when the masters had
done something to displease him, Pestalozzi would fly
into a passion and angrily leave the room, slamming
the door as if he would break it. But if at that
moment he happened to meet a young pupil, he would
instantly grow calm, and after kissing the boy, return
to the room, exclaiming : ' I beg your pardon ! Forgive
my violence ! I was mad ! ' " ' Baron de Guimps writes :
" He used to appear every day in the middle of the
lessons. If the teaching satisfied him his face would
become radiant with pleasure, he would caress the
children and say a few pleasant words to them ; but if,
on the other hand, he was not satisfied he would
angrily leave the room at once, slamming the door be-
hind him."
M. Soyaux says of Pestalozzi : *' It was only neces-
sary to see this man to have the best opinion of
him ; he is always in deep thought : he discovers more
in himself than from the outside world, more in the
world of thought than in the world of things. A spirit
of ceaseless activity, an inner impetus, sometimes
drives him from one room to another, from one colleague
to another. . . . Sometimes he passes whole days in his
own room, and spends his time in meditation and writ-
ing, wholly forgetful of his person and his affairs. One
can begin a conversation with him easily enough, but
it is not often that one can keep him to one subject, and
get him to discuss it thoroughly. He merely breaks
the current of his own thoughts for a few minutes, says
138 PESTALOZZI.
a few friendly words, and then draws back into his
shell.
" When, however, one can get him to notice well-
grounded objections and doubts he becomes keen and
talkative. He speaks fluently and to the point, in an
energetic and definite way. Contradiction does not
irritate him, and has seldom any effect other than
making him more convinced than ever of the rightness
of his opinions. His heart is most affectionate and
friendly. . . . He shrinks from no sacrifice if the end
is good and noble. He carries his forgetfulness of his
own and his family's interests too far — he takes in too
many pupils free of charge.
"The firmness and independence of his mind show
themselves in his personal appearance. . . . Unused to
the usages of European society, he freely follows the
natural impulses of his heart and mind. He is quiet,
sincere, earnest, modestly firm, lively without being
carried away by physical impulses, sympathetically at-
tentive, but lacking in refinement because uninfluenced
in his words and actions by outside opinions. As he
has not been educated by men, he does not know how
to exert an active influence on them. He is a thinker
rather than an educator."
We will take one more glimpse of the whole man,
and this through the eyes of Dr. Mayo — an English
clergyman who was chaplain to the English children at
Yverdon — who was three years at the institute on terms
of intimacy and confidence with Pestalozzi, and thus
writes of him in a private letter to a friend : " Pestalozzi
completes this day his seventy-sixth year. His grey hair,
his careworn countenance, his hollow eye, and bent figure
proclaim that many days, and those days of trouble.
PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND HABITS, 1 39
have passed over his head. His heart, however, seems
still young ; the same warm and active benevolence,
the same unconquerable hope, the same undoubting
confidence, the same generous self-abandonment animate
it now, that have led to the many sacrifices and have
supported him under the many difficulties and trials of
his eventful life.
" In a thousand little traits of character, which un-
consciously escape him, I read the confirmation of his
history. It is an affecting sight, when the venerable ob-
ject of the admiration of emperors and princes appears
in the midst of his adopted children. Rich and poor,
natives and foreigners share alike his paternal caress,
and regard him with the same fearless attachment.
From the sacrifice of time, property and health, for the
benefit of a people who knew not how to value his
merit, to the picking up a child's plaything, or the
soothing of an infant's sorrow, Pestalozzi is ever prompt
to obey the call of humanity and kindness. The senti-
ment of love reigns so powerfully in his heart, that acts
of the highest benevolence, or of the most condescend-
ing good nature seem to require no effort, but appear
the spontaneous manifestation of one over-ruling prin-
ciple. . . .
" Though honoured with the most flattering testi-
monies of esteem and approbation by courts and uni-
versities, Pestalozzi is the most modest and unassuming
of men. To all who take an interest in his method of
education he addresses himself in the most touching
expressions of gratitude, as if they conferred the greatest
obligation by examining into the truth of his opinions
and the utility of his plans. ... * Examine my method ;
adopt what you find to be good and reject what you
I40 PESTALOZZI.
cannot approve. We are doing something here towards
the execution of my principles of education, but what
we do is still very imperfect.' . . .
" You cannot conceive the interest which Pestalozzi
awakens or the influence which he insensibly acquires.
All the little barriers, behind which reserve or suspicion
teach us to entrench ourselves, fall before the child-
like simplicity, the unaffected humility and feminine
tenderness of his heart. Self-interest is shamed into
silence, while we listen to the aspirations of his bound-
less benevolence ; and if one spark of generous feeling
glows in the bosom, the elevated enthusiasm of his
character must blow it into a flame. The powers of his
original mind serve to maintain the interest which his
character first excites. In conversation, however, he
is most frequently a listener. Towards those with whom
he lives in perfect intimacy he sometimes indulges in a
playful but forcible raillery ; careful meanwhile to avoid
giving the slightest pain or uneasiness. He is peculiarly
successful in portraying some great character by two
or three masterly strokes ; in marking either in retro-
spect, or by anticipation, the influence of political events
on national character, or national prosperity ; in charac-
terising the different methods of education in vogue ; or
in tracing the difference between his views and those
of certain philosophers with which they have been
confounded.
''There is nothing studied about him. Often as I
have heard him enter on the subject of his system for
the information of strangers, I do not recollect him to
have taken it up twice from the same point of view.
When we have conversed on these subjects, I have
sometimes thought his ideas wild and his views im-
''TAKE HIM FOR ALL IN ALL." I41
practicable. The faint and misty but still beautiful light
which emanated from his mind I have regarded with a
feeling of melancholy delight, for it seemed to indicate
that the sun of his genius had set. Still, I have been
unable to dismiss from my mind his loose and ill-digested
hints. After frequent reconsideration of them they have
appeared more clear and more feasible ; and I have
subsequently traced their influence on the opinions
I have adopted and on the plans of instruction which I
have pursued.
" Pestalozzi once known is never forgotten. I have
talked with men who have not seen him for years, or
whom the current of events has separated from all inter-
course with him. His honoured image lives as fresh in
their memory as if their communication had never been
suspended or broken. Anecdotes illustrating his benevo-
lence are current in their families, and their children
anticipate the delight of one day receiving the parental
caress of good Father Pestalozzi. Many of my own
countrymen who have enjoyed the privilege of his
society will, I am sure, carry the remembrance of him
to their graves."
CHAPTER IX.
PESTALOZZI THE THINKER.
Starting with the fact that Pestalozzi was gifted with
a mind which by its native power could pierce more
deeply, fully and independently into the inner meaning
and significance of things and ideas than the minds of
other men — in a word, that he was a genius — we can
usefully consider the influences which helped to develop
his mind in the direction which it actually took, and the
work it did. There is not the least doubt but that the
influence of his mother, and the fact that he was
entirely under the influence of women during his early
years, had a very important and abiding effect upon him.
Again, his own wife, and the faithful and devoted Eliza-
beth Naef, were the only persons who really believed in
and supported him in his most terrible time of failure
and want at Neuhof. No wonder, therefore, that Eliza-
beth was immortalised as Gertrude ; and that the woman
and the mother are regarded by Pestalozzi as the very
corner-stone of education and the foundations of society.
Education must be based upon the mother's influence
and work ; and, hence, it must be domestic and industrial
in the earliest stages.
His own reading and study at school and college
would bring him into touch with at least some of the
ideas of the great classical writers on education and
J 43
EARLY DETERMINING INFLUENCES. I43
government. In his work On the Idea of Elementary
Education he discusses the Greek ideal of education,
pointing out that the Greeks based their system on the
idea of developing the human faculties by human ac-
tivities rather than knowledge giving ; that they gave
general education before special training for work ^
and that their method of intellectual education is the
most perfect model ever given to the world. In How
Gertrude Teaches her Children he deals with the Socratic
method of teaching, which he considers unsuitable for
very young children, because it makes too great de-
mands on the reasoning powers. In his study of law
and politics he would deal more especially with prin-
ciples of government, which would necessarily involve
some consideration of systems of education. This was
especially Jikely to be the case under such a man as
Professor Bodmer, one of the ablest men of his day and
a foremost reformer.
We have already seen his own statement of the in-
fluence of Rousseau's works on his mind and heart.
His whole conception of education was very largely and
deeply influenced, and probably moulded, by Rousseau's
views. It is more than likely that in the course of his
reading he would become acquainted with the ideas, if
not the writings, of Locke and Hobbes. His Inquiry
into the Course of Nature in the development of the Human
Race seems to suggest this very clearly and strongly.
The essays in which he and his fellow collegians
shared at the meetings of the Helvetic Society would
all help in this direction, for Professor Bodmer was the
founder of it, and the subjects dealt with were history,
education, poHtics and ethics. The national work
done by this society would, of course, be well known to
144 PESTALOZZI.
Pestalozzi, and would in some measure guide and form
his ideas on education.
Pestalozzi was a truly scientific thinker and worker,
to a considerable extent ; not in a strict, systematic
and thorough way, but in that he made a very consider-
able use of real observation and experiment — as far as
his wayward nature would allow. He might almost be
said to be the first who began Child-Study, from the
educational point of view. His very first attempts at
practical teaching were made, as we have seen, in the
upbringing of his own son. To further illustrate this
we will give one or two more extracts from the diary in
which he records his efforts, results and reflections — so
extremely interesting and instructive : " When the child
knows the signs [names] before learning to know the
things they represent, and especially when he connects
wrong ideas with them, our daily lessons and conversa-
tion only strengthen and increase his mistakes, and force
him still further along the path of error without our
even suspecting it. . . .
*' In the matter of education I am generally very
eager to get to know the ideas of those who have been
brought up quite naturally and without restraint : who
have been taught by life itself and not by lessons. . . .
Do not press your own knowledge too much upon the
child, rather let truth itself speak to him : never tire of
putting before his eyes whatever is likely to instruct
him or help his development." In fact, we find the
foundations of most of his principles in these notes.
At Stanz his mind is ever busy watching the effects
of his methods upon the children and drawing conclu-
sions therefrom ; and these he set down in writing in a
letter sent from Gurnigel — where he had gone to re-
SOME EARLY EXPERIMENTS. I45
cruit his health, immediately on leaving Stanz — to his
friend Gessner. At Burgdorf he continued this work of
observation and reflection. He writes thus about his
class-work in school : " I was every moment confronted
with facts which threw increasing light on the physical
and mechanical laws by which our minds are enabled
to receive and retain external impressions. Every day
I strove more and more to conform to these laws in my
teaching, although I did not thoroughly understand the
principle upon which they were based till last summer."
Here also he did some individual child-study. He
writes : ''A mother full of interest for the education of
her child, entrusted me with the instruction of her little
boy, then hardly three years old. I saw him, for some
time, an hour every day ; and with him, too, I was
merely, as it were, feeling the pulse of the method : I
tried to convert letters, figures, and whatever else was
at hand, into means of instruction ; that is to say, I led
him to form, concerning every object, distinct notions,
and to express these notions clearly in language. . . .
It threw a good deal of light upon the means of enliven-
ing the child's faculties, and inducing him to independ-
ent exertion for the preservation and increase of his
powers. . . .
" The experiment I made with this boy could not be
decisive as to the earliest beginning of instruction ; for
this reason, that he had already been allowed to pass in
comparative inactivity the three first years of his life ;
a period during which, I am convinced, nature urges
upon the child's consciousness an immense variety of
objects" {How Gertrude Teaches).
Through these observations and experiments he was
led to modify his ideas and methods from time to
10
146 PESTALOZZI.
time. Thus in teaching writing at Burgdorf, he says :
" Instead of getting the children to form letters with their
pencils, as I had done at Stanz, I now gave them angles,
squares, straight lines and curves to draw. During
these endeavours, the idea of making an alphabet of
forms [see p. 218] was gradually developed in me. I
had not, however, at first, a very distinct notion of it
myself, but in proportion as the subject emerged in my
mind from its obscurity, my conviction of its importance
for the whole of my proposed method of instruction in-
creased. It was a long time before I saw quite clearly
into it ; my progress was inconceivably slow. I had
for several months, already, been engaged in the attempt
to resolve the different means of instruction into their
elements, and I had taken great trouble to reduce them
to their greatest simplicity. Still I could not see their
inter-connection ; or at any rate, I had not a clear con-
sciousness ,of it, though I felt that I was advancing
every hour, and that with rapid strides " {How Ger-
trude Teaches).
M. Tobler has this reference to Pestalozzi's experi-
menting : '' I saw that he attached no value to the de-
tails of his experiments, but tried many of them with a
view to throw them aside again, as soon as they should
have answered their temporary purpose. With many
of them he had no other object than to increase the in-
ternal power of the children, and to obtain for himself
further information concerning the fundamental prin-
ciples on which all his proceedings rested."
M. Fischer, in a letter to Steinmuller (editor of Swiss
Schoolmasters' Library), 20th December, 1799, writes :
''It is almost incredible how indefatigably he makes
experiments ; and inasmuch as he philosophises more
HIS SEARCH FOR FUNDAMENTALS. I47
after the experiments than before them — except as to a
few guiding principles — he must needs increase them ;
but the results gain in certainty thereby. ... In this
way not only are many parts of the methods hitherto in
use subjected to criticism, but also many forms and de-
tails of methods are discovered and at once adapted to
the new point of departure."
Dr. Mayo gives us an account of the manner in
which Pestalozzi would seize upon, and make use of,
incidents in school work as the basis of principle and
practice. " It was proposed to bring education more in
contact with the child's own experience and observation,
and to find in him the first link in the chain of his in-
struction. In the execution of this plan, a series of
engravings was provided, representing those objects
which are familiar to children ; and the lessons con-
sisted in naming their parts, describing their structure
and use. One day, however, the master having pre-
sented to his class the engraving of a ladder, a lively
little boy exclaimed : ' But there is a real ladder in the
courtyard ; why not talk about it rather than the pic-
ture ! ' ' The engraving is here,' said the master, ' and
it is more convenient to talk about what is before your
eyes than to go into the courtyard to talk about the
other.' The boy's observation, thus eluded, was for that
time disregarded.
*' Soon after, the engraving of a window formed the
subject of examination; 'But why,' exclaimed the
same little objector, 'talk of this picture of a window,
when there is a real window in the room, and there is
no need to go into the courtyard for it ? ' Again the
remark was silenced, but in the evening both circum-
stances were mentioned to Pestalozzi. ' The boy is
10 *
148 PESTALOZZI.
right,' said he; *the reality is better than the counter-
feit ; put away the engravings, and let the class be in-
structed by means of real objects.' The plan was
adopted." Herein is also the evolution of the Object
Lesson.
The foregoing will show that Pestalozzi was not
ignorant of the methods of scientific inquiry, and that
he did not fail to make use of them. He had studied
natural history during his student days at Zurich ; and
the researches which he, for several years, pursued be-
fore writing his treatise On Legislation and Infanticide, the
Inquiry, etc., and Essay on the Causes of the French Re-
volution, must all have disciplined him, to some extent,
for his educational investigations and speculations.
But, after all, his supreme qualification for the work
he did was just his genius. To genius it would seem,
in some cases, that power is given to create a world of
ideas from what had previously been almost a formless
void ; whilst it is always its privilege to make actual
what other men may not yet have dreamed to be even
possible. Genius is the greatest of all influences in
human affairs, and, therefore, speaking broadly, needs
less influencing from other forces — and, indeed, is least
open to the action of ordinary influences, because it is
so much superior to them. The pity is that in the case
of Pestalozzi the expression of his great thoughts is
sometimes so indistinct and so involved that it is diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to say exactly what he means.
Yet there is an overwhelming force of truth and clear-
ness in most of his work, and it is quite possible for his
disciples to construct a sound and connected body of
principles from what he has written ; and we now pro-
ceed to make an attempt to do something of this sort.
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. 149
I. Education as the Means of Social Development.
We must always remember that Pestalozzi was, first
and last, a social and political reformer, and that he
regarded the education of the poorer classes as the only
sure means to bring about sound social reform. " Ele-
mentary education alone can regenerate and save
society," he said. Again, he writes: ** Let us hope
that those who govern humanity will come to the con-
viction that the betterment of the human race is their
most important, indeed their sole, concern. I am con-
vinced that, sooner or later, all that I wish for the
education of the people will be realised." As a boy he
got to know, through his visits to his uncle and grand-
father, of the hard lot of the country people, and used
to say : " When I am big, I shall stand up for the
peasants ; they have a right to the same advantages as
the townspeople ". When a student he had written, in
Der Erinnerer : " I wish that all who work with their
hands, all who live hard-working, frugal and self-
supporting lives, should be looked upon as the pillars
of our liberty, and be much more esteemed amongst us ".
During this period he also published an essay in which
he tells the history of Agis, King of Sparta, who en-
deavoured to reform his people. Although brought up
amidst the greatest luxury he lived a severely simple
life, and tried to persuade his wealthier subjects to
follow his example. He also tried to secure a fresh
distribution of land amongst his people, so that general
prosperity might be restored. He failed in his efforts,
and paid for his boldness with his life. Pestalozzi
eloquently praises Agis for his wisdom and courage.
At Neuhof he begins his great educational work by
I50 PESTALOZZI.
trying to reclaim the outcast and poor ; at Stanz he
seeks to save the orphans ; at Burgdorf he longs to
return to his Poor School work ; at Yverdon he insists
on returning to his first and constant love ; and, finally,
w^hen he returns to Neuhof to die, he again begins his
cherished labour of love for the poor and neglected.
He sought to strengthen and refine the v^eakest and
roughest link in the social chain. He says : " If we
wish to aid the poor man, the very lowest among the
people, we can do so only in one way, namely, by
changing the schools of the people into places of true
education, in which the moral, mental and physical
powers, which God has put into our nature, may be
drawn out, so that a man may be enabled to live such
a life as he should live : happy in himself, and a bless-
ing to others. Only in this way can a man, whom in
the whole world nobody does really help because nobody
can truly help, learn to help himself." This is a fine
conception, and expression, of the truest and best way
of helping others. It is universal in its truth, and
Pestalozzi was always striving to make it universal in
its application,
Pestalozzi argues, in Leonard and Gertrude^ that if
men are impoverished in mind and body they become
degraded in both, and develop such vices as dishonesty,
low cunning, craftiness, suspicion, wild violence, re-
vengefulness and cruelty. They lose all, what are
commonly called, the natural affections and develop
many of the worst animal instincts : cruelty to their
own offspring, treachery to one another, and bestial
living. Thus society not only loses all the advantages
which might be obtained by providing means for culti-
vating the powers for good which are in every man, but
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. 151
suffers the positive dangers and disasters of having to
control viciously disposed human beings.
It is, therefore, a duty of society to provide education
for all, both because all God's gifts to man are good,
and lay upon us the obligation of using them well and
rightly ; and because the self-interests of society are
concerned in getting the best, and not the worst, from
each and every member of the social body. The first
aim of governments should, therefore, be to get the
most and the best from the working classes. They
should, at least, take as intelligent a view of the situa-
tion as the slave-owner, viz., that the better the workers
are cared for the better it will be for the money-bags.
Even such a mercenary motive would lead to a very
different treatment of the peasants.
The value of a man to the community in which he
lives depends almost wholly upon the full and right
development of his faculties, and the proper employ-
ment of his trained powers. To this end the social
institutions, morals and methods of education need to
be of the best. If men lack social culture they tend to
remain in the state of primitive man ; and true justice
and security are impossible in the society in which they
live. Education should prepare individuals for what
they will be in the community. They should be so
trained that they use their abilities to the greatest
possible advantage, whether it be as ploughmen or
rat-catchers.
As a matter of fact, says Pestalozzi, we find that the
children of the poor are the best educated in relation
to the work they will have to do in the community.
Mothers and fathers instinctively see what is necessary
and best for their children — in the state of life in which
152 PESTALOZZI.
they live and are likely to live — and they find, in do-
mestic affairs, the v^ays and means for educating them.
If they did not do this they would, in time, certainly
lose their positions in the industrial world. Hence it
has become a tradition to pass on from generation to
generation a domestic education.
The children of the working classes are, in the above
sense, far better educated than those of the well-to-do ;
and this because they have not been to school. The
methods of the schools are so wrong and unsuitable
that they do far more harm than good. They are too
abstract, too general, too superficial, and too little con-
nected with, and similar to, family life. The reason that
the old-fashioned education was so successful is that it
was based upon, and given through, the actual affairs of
life, and chiefly those of the home. So far, therefore,
as we use schools for educating children they must in
all important points resemble and reflect the home and
home life. It is true that the school can supply the
conditions of the common life of a community, which
the home cannot ; but until the school has discharged
the functions of the home, it is not able to do other, or
higher, work. In mental, moral and physical education,
the school must employ the matter and the manner of
the good mother and the good home.
Now, the first aim of the well-conducted home is to
provide for the physical needs and comforts of each
member of the family ; so the first aim of primary edu-
cation should be based upon the primary needs of human
beings. It should, therefore, be industrial and practical
in its methods, in the first instance. To live, man must
eat ; to eat, he must work for food ; and to work well, he
must be well trained for work. There is a wise old saw
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. 1 53
amongst the common people which says, " First learn
your trade, and then talk about it ". This contains
much wisdom, for in learning to work many instructive
experiences are gone through : the habit of fixed atten-
tion is developed : the power of judgment is exercised
and sharpened : and the feelings and sentiments are
developed. Thus the mind is best prepared — by actually
finding out certain general rules of actions and conduct,
and by the observation and consideration of single facts
— to proceed to deal with general principles, and the in-
vestigation of details through instruction at school.
It will, says Pestalozzi, be said that domestic edu-
cation is impossible because mothers are not qualified
to give it. This difficulty was always present to his
mind ; he frequently refers to it ; and he believed that
he had solved it. Speaking of his work at Stanz, he
says: '' My aim was to carry the simplification of the
means of teaching so far that all the common people
might easily be brought to teach their children, and
gradually to render the schools almost superfluous for
the first elements of instruction. As the mother is the
first to nourish her child physically, so, also, by the
appointment of God, she must be the first to give it
spiritual nourishment ; I consider that very great evils
have been brought about by sending children too early
to school, and by all the artificial means of educating
them away from home. The time will come, so soon
as we shall have simplified instruction, when every
mother will be able to teach, without the help of others,
and, thereby, at the same time continue her own educa-
tion " {How Gertrude Teaches).
Education must be practical in the sense that it must
prepare the individual to find happiness in his life's
154 PESTALOZZI.
work, whatever it may be ; and, in all circumstances,
to be a useful member of society. Every man should
be educated for his station in life, whether he be legis-
lator, lawyer, clergyman, or a member of any other pro-
fession. In like manner the poor should be educated
for poverty. Children in orphanages, and other be-
nevolent institutions, should be thus educated. If they
are they will be able to earn enough to pay for their
schooling, and something over; and the state will be
relieved from their after care — because of failure arising
from their ignorance and incapacity. Pestalozzi sums
up his position thus : " I simply put to myself the
question : What would you do if you wished to give a
single child all the theoretical knowledge and practical
skill which he requires in order to be able to attend
properly to the great concerns of life, and so attain to
inward contentment ? . . . What are the means of de-
veloping in the child those practical abilities, which the
ultimate purpose of his existence, as well as the change-
able positions and relations of life, will or may require
of him, and cultivating them to such a degree of per-
fection that the fulfilment of his duties will be to
him, not only possible or easy, but in reality a second
nature?"
Children thus educated will be very unlikely to desire
to engage in work other than that for which they have
been prepared ; unless, in individual cases, there is very
special ability and favourable opportunities. At the
same time it must not be forgotten that the earliest
education given will, in all cases, be quite general and
preparatory, not special or professional. The latter
needs a well-prepared mind and nature, or it cannot
possibly be fully successful. Education does not aim
EDUCATION AND MORALS. 1 55
at making good artisans, tradesmen, etc., but good men
who will certainly become good tradesmen, artisans, etc.
To omit this practical training, or to give theoretical
instruction before it, is to put the cart before the horse :
to make preachers and prattlers instead of doers and
thinkers : and mere guessers instead of investigators.
Domestic work and duties : the importance of careful
attention and correct method in doing them : the need
of prompt, cheerful and willing obedience : the constant
thinking of, and working for, others, all tend to develop
both the heart and the mind, and to make good men
and good citizens. The mother and the home, there-
fore, and not the book and the school, are the right and
proper beginnings of education.
n. Education as a Means of Moral and Relig^ious
Development.
The chief end of education is morality, for the human
element in our nature can only be truly developed
through the development of the godlike element which
is present in man. Man is destined for eternity. The
true mother says : '* ' My children are born for eternity,
and confided expressly to me that I may educate them
for being children of God '. . . . She hails in her offspring
not merely the citizen of the world : ' Thou art born,'
she cries, ' for immortality, and an immortality of
happiness : such is the promise of thy heaven-derived fac-
ulties ; such shall be the consummation of thy Heavenly
Father's love ' " (On Infants' Education). Hence the
good home gives the best moral training, whether for
private or for public life. This is chiefly because it is in
the relation of the child to the mother that all true
morality begins ; and because we must be moral before
1 56 PESTALOZZI.
we can be religious, i.e., until we have right feelings and
conduct towards our brother, whom we have seen, we
cannot have right feelings and conduct towards God,
whom we have not seen. Pestalozzi sets out his views
on these points in a very clear and charming way.
" I find that the feelings of love, confidence and
gratitude, and the habit of obedience, require to be
developed in man, before they can be directed to the
Divine Being as their object. I must love men, con-
fide in men, be grateful to men, and obey men, before I
can cherish the same feelings, and practice the same
virtues towards God, ' for he that loveth not his brother,
whom he hath seen, how can he love God, whom he
hath not seen '.
"The question then is: What are the means of
awakening in the child, love, confidence, gratitude and
obedience, with regard to man ? I answer : All those
virtues originate in the relationship established between
the infant and its mother. The mother is impelled, as
it were, by instinct to nurse and foster her child, to
afford him shelter and happiness. She satisfies all his
wants, she removes from him all that is unpleasant to
him, she assists his helplessness, the child is provided
for and made happy : the seed of love begins to be
unfolded.
" A new object strikes his senses ; he is astonished,
afraid, he cries ; the mother presses him more fondly to
her bosom, she plays with him, amuses him ; he ceases
from crying, but the tears remain in his eyes. The object
re-appears, the mother throws round him again her pro-
tecting arms, and comforts him with a smile; he cries
no longer, his bright unclouded little eye answers the
mother's smile : the seed of confidence has taken root,
EDUCATION AND MORALS. 1 57
" The mother runs to the cradle whenever he has
any want ; she is there in the hour of hunger, at her
breast his cravings are satisfied ; when he hears her
step approaching his cryings cease ; when he sees her,
he stretches out his little arms ; while hanging at her
bosom his eyes beam with satisfaction ; mother and
satisfaction are to him but one idea — it is that of grati-
tude.
*' The germs of love, confidence and gratitude grow
rapidly. His ear listens to his mother's footsteps ; his
eye follows her shadow with a smile ; he loves those
who resemble her : a being who resembles his mother
is, in his idea, a kind being. He beholds the human
form, the form of his mother, with delight : whoever is
dear to his mother is dear to him ; he embraces those
whom she embraces, and kisses those whom she kisses :
the love of mankind, brotherly love, springs up in his
heart- . . .
'' Nature opposes the storming child by unbending
necessity. The child knocks against wood and stone ;
nature remains unbending, and the child ceases to
knock against wood and stone. The mother also be-
gins to oppose in the same manner the turbulence of
his desires. He raves and kicks : she remains inexor-
able— he ceases to cry, and accustoms himself to subject
his will to hers : the seeds of patience and obedience
are unfolding themselves in his heart.
''By the united action of love, gratitude, confidence
and obedience, the conscience is awakened : the first
shade of a feeling that it is wrong to rave against a
loving mother ; that the mother is not in the world for
his sake only. This leads to the feeling that other
beings and things, nay, he himself, are not made for
158 PESTALOZZI.
his sake only : and here are the first germs of duty, of
right. . . .
" The infant trusts and obeys, but he is unconscious
of the grounds of his confidence and of his obedience,
and as he becomes gradually conscious of them, this
power over him diminishes in the same proportion. He
begins to feel himself, he leaves the hand of his mother,
and a voice whispers in his bosom, ' I have no more
need of my mother '. The mother reads in his eyes the
rising thought, she presses her darling more affection-
ately than ever to her bosom, and she says, with a voice
such as he never heard before, ' Oh, my child, there is
a God of whom thou wilt have need, though thou
shouldst have no more need of me : a God who will
protect thee when I am no longer able to do it : a God
who will prepare for thee joy and happiness, when I
have no more to give '.
''Then rises in the child's bosom an unspeakable
something, a holy feeling, an impulse of faith, that raises
him above himself. He rejoices to hear the name of
God from the lips of his mother, the feelings of love,
gratitude and confidence, which the sympathies of her
bosom kindled in him, are enlarged ; they now embrace
his Heavenly Father, as they first did his earthly parents.
The sphere of obedience is extended ; the .child now
fears the eye of God, as it did before that of its mother ;
and as for the mother's sake heretofore, so now he does
right for the sake of God. . . .
" The further development of those feelings requires
the highest art of education. Those feelings are of
divine origin, and on their preservation, therefore,
depends the measure of moral power of which the child
shall afterwards be possessed. Every means should
EDUCATION AND MORALS. 1 59
be used to supply new fuel to those feelings, when the
physical incentives cease, which called them forth in
infancy; and the charms of the world should be pre-
sented to the child in constant subserviency to those
feelings.
'' Here you must not trust to nature ; you must do
all that is in your power to supply the place of her
henceforth blind guidance, by the wisdom of experience.
For the world which the child now enters, is not such
as it went forth from the hands of the Creator ; it is a
world full of deadly poison, both as regards his sen-
sual enjoyments and the feelings of his moral nature ;
a world full of warfare, selfishness, inconsistency, vio-
lence, conceit, falsehood and deception " {How Gertrude
Teaches).
In the world of morals, as in all else that concerns
the development of the human being, it is life itself
which must give the beginnings and the basis of educa-
tion. The proper work of moral education is to secure
the pure development of the will, in its highest and
fullest form, through the continued and ever-loftier exer-
cise of its power in love, gratitude and faith — the moral
elements already brought into life and activity in the
relations of the mother and the child. We must get
the child to strive after moral perfection by teaching it
to exercise its will through moral thoughts, feelings and
deeds.
"Man readily accepts what is good, and the child
willingly listens to it ; but it is not for your sake that
he desires it, master and educator, but for his own.
The good to which you wish to direct him must not de-
pend upon your varying moods or temper ; it must be
a good which is good in itself and in the nature of
l60 PESTALOZZI.
things, and which the child can recognise, for itself, as
good. He must feel that there is a necessity for your
will in things which have to do with his well-being be-
fore he can be expected to obey you.
"Whatever he does gladly; whatever brings him
credit ; whatever helps him to realise his greatest hopes ;
whatever rouses his powers and enables him to say with
truth / can : these things he wills. But will, in this
sense, cannot be aroused by mere words ; it can only be
brought into activity by the powers and feelings which
come from general culture [humane education]. Words
alone cannot give a real knowledge of things : they
only give expression to, a picture of, what we already
have in our minds.
''Try, first, to broaden your children's sympathies,
and, through satisfying their daily needs, to bring love
and kindness into such unceasing association with
their impressions and activity, that these sentiments
may be engrafted in their hearts ; then try to give them
such judgment and tact as will enable them to make a
wise, sure and abundant use of these virtues in the
circle in which they live. Finally, do not hesitate to
touch on the difficult questions of good and evil, and
the words connected with them. You must do this
more particularly in connection with the ordinary
events of everyday life, upon which all your teaching in
these matters must be founded, so that the children
may be reminded of their own actual feelings, and
supplied, as it were, with solid facts upon which to base
their conception of the beauty and justice of the moral
life. . . .
" Elementary moral education, considered as a whole,
has three distinct elements : first, the children's moral
EDUCATION AND MORALS. l6l
sense must be aroused through their feeHngs being
made active and pure ; then they must be exercised in
self-control, and thus enabled to devote themselves
steadily to that which is right and good ; finally, they
must be brought to form for themselves, by reflection
and comparison, a just idea of the moral rights and
duties which belong to them by reason of their position
and surroundings " (How Gertrude Teaches),
Moral training is possible under all circumstances, and
through all kinds of work. Work is, in itself, neither
moral nor immoral, but the manner in which it is done
is either one or the other. Therefore children can be
as easily educated in morals whilst living in an in-
dustrial institution as in any other circumstances. In-
deed all forms of physical exercises have a direct
connection with moral education. " If the physical
advantage of gymnastics is great and uncontrovertible,
I would contend that the moral advantage resulting
from them is as valuable. . . . Gymnastics, well con-
ducted, essentially contribute to render children not
only cheerful and healthy, which, for moral education,
are two all-important points, but also to promote among
them a certain spirit of union, and a brotherly feeling,
which are most gratifying to the observer. Habits of
industry, openness and frankness of character, personal
courage, and a manly bearing in suffering pain, are also
among the natural and constant consequences of an
early and a continued practice of exercises on the gym-
nastic system " {On Infants' Education).
Like Aristotle, Pestalozzi has a firm belief in the
moral influence of music. He calls it " one of the most
effective aids of moral education. ... It is the marked
and most beneficial influence of music on the feelings,
II
1 62 PESTALOZZI.
which I have always thought and always observed to
be most efficient in preparing or attuning, as it were, the
mind for the best impressions. The exquisite harmony
of a superior performance, the studied elegance of the
execution, may indeed give satisfaction to a connois-
seur ; but it is the simple and untaught grace of melody
which speaks to the heart of every human being. Our
own national melodies, which have since time im-
memorial been resounding in our native villages, are
fraught with reminiscences of the brightest pages of our
history, and of the most endearing scenes of domestic
life. But the effect of music in education is not only to
keep alive a national feeling : it goes much deeper ; if
cultivated in the right spirit, it strikes at the root of
every bad or narrow feeling, of every ungenerous or
mean propensity, of every emotion unworthy of human-
ity
" I need not remind you of the importance of music
in engendering and assisting the highest feelings of
which man is capable. It is almost universally acknow-
ledged that Luther has seen the truth, when he pointed
out that music, devoid of studied pomp and vain orna-
ment, in its solemn and impressive simplicity, is one
of the most efficient means of elevating and purifying
genuine feelings of devotion " (On Infants' Education).
III. Education as a Means of Physical Development.
Pestalozzi not only advocated and carried out system-
atic physical education, but he had, as in other matters,
a very deep insight into the nature of the elements and
the ends of it. He says : "If, according to correct
principles of education, all the powers of man are to be
developed, and all his slumbering energies called into
EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 1 63
play, the early attention of mothers must be directed
to a subject which is generally considered to require
neither much thought nor experience, and, therefore, is
generally neglected. I mean the physical education of
children. Who has not a few general sentences at hand,
which he will be ready to quote, but perhaps not to
practise, on the management of children ? . . .
"The revival of gymnastics is, in my opinion, the
most important step that has been taken in this direc-
tion. The great merit of the gymnastic art is not the
facility with which certain exercises are performed, or
the ability which they may give for certain exertions
that require much energy and dexterity; though an
attainment of that sort is by no means to be despised.
But the greatest advantage resulting from a practice of
such exercises, is the natural progression which has to
be observed in the arrangement of them : beginning
with those which, while they are easy in themselves,
lead, as preparatory exercises, to others which are more
complicated and more difficult. There is not, perhaps,
any art in which it may be so clearly shown, that powers
which appeared to be wanting, are to be developed by
no other means than practice alone. . . . When ability
is wanting altogether I know that it cannot be imparted
by any system of education. But I have been taught
by experience to believe that cases in which talents of
any kind are absolutely wanting are very few. In most
cases I have had the satisfaction to find that a faculty
which had been given up as hopeless, instead of being
helped to develop had been hindered and obstructed in
its activity by a variety of exercises which tended to
confuse the learner or deter him from further exertion.
*' And here I would attend to a prejudice which is
II *
1 64 PESTALOZZI.
very common concerning gymnastics : it is frequently
said that they may be very good for those who are
strong enough ; but that those who are of a weak con-
stitution would be altogether unequal to, and even
endangered by, the practice of gymnastics. Now I will
venture to say that this rests merely upon a misunder-
standing of the first principles of gymnastics : that exer-
cises must not only vary according to the strength of
individuals, but that they should be, and indeed have
been, devised for those also who were actually suffering.
I have consulted the authority of the first physicians,
who declared that, in cases which had come under their
personal observation,individuals affected with pulmonary
complaints — if these had not already gone too far — had
been materially relieved and benefited by a constant
practice of the few and simple exercises which the
system, in such cases, proposes. . . . Exercises may be
devised for every age, and for every degree of bodily
strength, however reduced. . . .
" Physical exercises ought by no means to be confined
to those exercises which now receive the name of gym-
nastics. By means of them strength and dexterity will
be acquired in the use of the limbs in general ; but
particular exercises ought to be devised for the practice
of all the senses. This idea may at first seem a super-
fluous refinement, or an unnecessary encumbrance of
free development. We have acquired the full uses of
our senses, it is true, without any special instruction of
that sort : but the question is not whether these exer-
cises are indispensable, but whether, under many cir-
cumstances, they will not prove very useful.
" How many are there of us whose eyes would, without
any assistance, judge correctly of a dista^nce, or of the
EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. 165
proportion of the size of different objects ? How many
are there who distinguish and recognise the nice shades
of colours, without actually comparing the one with
the other ; or whose ears will be alive to the slightest
variation of sound ? Those who are able to do such
things with some degree of perfection, will be found to
derive their facility either from a certain innate talent,
or from constant and laborious practice. Now it is
evident that there is a certain superiority in these attain-
ments, which natural talent gives without any special
exertion, and which instruction could never impart,
though attended by the most diligent application. But
if practice cannot do everything, at least it can do much ;
and the earlier it is begun, the easier and the more per-
fect must be the success" (On Infants\ Education).
True physical education is much more than a develop-
ing of muscle : it is a developing of mind. Not only
does our very existence depend upon the proper exercise
of our body, but the nurture of the intellectual powers,
in the first instance, depends upon the activity and
development of the physical powers. The inner unity
of our nature depends upon, and demands, the har-
monious and balanced development of body and mind.
The mind would have little or nothing which would
arouse its activities if it were not for the exercise of the
senses and the general physical powers.
The direct aim so far as the physical powers them-
selves are concerned should be : (i) the development of
strength, which can be secured through exercises which
demand easy control of the limbs, and the overcoming of
physical obstacles ; and (2) the development of grace,
which may be obtained through exercises which require
regular and rhythmic movements.
l66 PESTALOZZI.
The view of physical education which Pestalozzi held
is evidently a very broad and comprehensive one. He
sought to further normal development : to correct wrong
and defective development : to train the special senses
as well as the muscular system : to use gymnastics as
a curative agent in cases of disease : to produce muscular
power and skill : to afford pleasure and the development
which comes from play : and to aid intellectual and
moral development. With some of these points we
shall deal further in a later chapter.
CHAPTER X.
PESTALOZZI THE THINKER (continued).
We now come to the most important and the most
difficult part of our study: Pestalozzi's ideas on the
intellectual basis of all education, and the education of
the intellect. This is most important because it is the
most fundamental part of his thought and work ; and
it is the most difficult because of the characteristics of
his own mind and methods. However, we do but at-
tempt to do something hke what Niederer tried to do
for him, during his lifetime ; and what Pestalozzi him-
self exhorted his disciples to do : systematise (as best
we can) the great thoughts which he gave out so pro-
fusely and so promiscuously.
With his usual frankness and modesty, Pestalozzi
disclaims any pretension to have set forth a complete
theory and art of education. He writes: "When I
assert positively that a man's powers are all part of an
organic whole, I do not in the least wish to suggest
that I have thoroughly apprehended either this or-
ganism or its laws ; and when I state that a rational
method must be followed in teaching, I do not for a
moment pretend that I have always followed such a
method, or that I have worked out all the details of
one". In one passage he likens himself to "the
Egyptian who first fastened the shovel to the horns of
an ox, and so taught it to do the work of the man who
167
l68 PESTALOZZI.
digs; [and thus] led the way to the discovery of the
plough, though he did not bring it to perfection "
(How Gertrude Teaches).
Since the end and aim desired must determine the
ways and means adopted, we propose to give extracts
in which Pestalozzi has summarised, more or less, his
views on these two aspects of education. These are
meant to serve as a summary of the preceding chapter
and a preparation for part v. of this chapter.
IV. What Education is.
From the social aspect he says: "the education of
men is simply the filing of each ring in the great chain
which joins humanity together and makes it a whole.
The mistakes of education are due to working at each
ring of the chain separately, as though it were a separate
unit, and not an integral part of the whole : as though
the strength and utility of each ring were due to the
fact of its being gilded, silvered, or even set with precious
stones, and not due to the fact that it had been made
supple and strong enough alwa57S to take part in all the
movements of the chain in all its windings " {Leonard
and Gertrude).
"The ultimate end of education is not a perfection in
the accomplishments of the school, but fitness for life ;
not the acquirement of habits of blind obedience, and of
prescribed diligence, but a preparation for independent
action. We must bear in mind that whatever class of
society a pupil may belong to, whatever calling he may
be intended for, there are certain faculties in human
nature common to all, which constitute the stock of the
fundamental energies of man. We have no right to
withhold from any one the opportunities for develop-
WHAT EDUCATION IS. 169
ing all their faculties. It may be judicious to treat some
of them with marked attention, and to give up the idea
of bringing others to high perfection. The diversity
of talent and inclination, of plans and pursuits, is a
sufficient proof of the necessity for such a distinction.
But I repeat that we have no right to shut out the
child from the development of those faculties also,
which we may not for the present conceive to be very
essential for his future calling or station in life. . . .
" Education, instead of merely considering what is to
be imparted to children, ought to consider first what
they may be said already to possess, if not as a de-
veloped, at least as an involved faculty capable of de-
velopment. Or if, instead of speaking thus in the
abstract, we will but recollect, that it is to the great
Author of life that man owes the possession, and is
responsible for the use, of his innate faculties, education
should not only decide what is to be made of a child,
but rather inquire, what is a child quahfied for ; what
is his destiny, as a created and responsible being ; what
are his faculties as a rational and moral being ; what are
the means pointed out for their perfection, and the end
held out as the highest object of their efforts? They
embrace the rightful claims of all classes to a general
diffusion of useful knowledge, a careful development of
the intellect, and judicious attention to all the faculties
of man, physical, intellectual and moral " {On Infants'
Education).
The moral side of education was regarded by Pesta-
lozzi as directly social in its bearings. " In relation to
society, man should be qualified by education to be a
useful member of it. In order to be truly useful it is
necessary that he should be truly independent. . . .
1^0 PESTALOZZI.
True independence must fall and rise with the dignity
of his moral character. ... A state of bondage, or of
self-merited poverty, is not more degrading than a state
of dependence on considerations which betray littleness
of mind, want of moral energy, or of honourable feeling.
. . . Education should contribute in giving happiness.
The feeling of happiness does not arise from exterior
circumstances ; it is a state of mind, a consciousness of
harmony both with the inward and the outward world :
it assigns their due limits to the desires, and it proposes
the highest aim to the faculties of man " {On Infants'
Education).
From the personal or individual point of view Pesta-
lozzi says that " education consists in returning to the
methods of Nature, and in developing and improving
the dispositions and powers of man. . . . [It] involves
the harmonious balance of all a man's powers, and this
involves the natural development of each and all. Each
power must be developed according to the laws of its
own nature, and these are not the same for the heart,
for the mind, and for the body " {Swan's Song).
'' Each of our moral, mental and bodily powers must
have its development based upon its own nature, and
not based upon artificial and outside influences.
"Faith must be developed by exercises in believ-
ing, and cannot be developed from the knowledge and
understanding, only, of what is to be believed ; thought
must grow from thinking, for it cannot come simply
from the knowledge and understanding of what is to be
thought, or the laws of thought ; love must be developed
by loving, for it does not arise merely from a knowledge
and understanding of what love is, and of what ought
to be loved; art, also, can only be cultivated through
WHAT EDUCATION IS. I/I
doing artistic work and acquiring skill, for unending
discussion of art and skill will not develop them. Such
a return to the true method of Nature in the method of
the development of our powers necessitates the sub-
ordination of education to the knowledge of the various
laws which govern those powers" {Address, on Seventy-
second Birthday).
Pestalozzi thus speaks of his own efforts to follow the
method of nature: "The more I pursued the track of
nature, the more I strove to connect my endeavours
with her working and exerted myself to keep pace with
her, the more did I perceive the immense progress of
her course ; and, to my astonishment, I found the child
endowed with sufficient power to follow her. The only
weakness I met with was [my own] inability to make
the best use of what was already in existence ; I found
myself guilty of the weakness of presumption, in making
myself the moving power, instead of merely collecting
materials for an internal power of action ; or rather, in
attempting to cram that into the child, which is only to
be drawn forth from him, as it is primitively deposited
in him, and requires nothing but a stimulus of life to
give the impulse for its development. I now thought
thrice before I presumed to imagine anything too diffi-
cult for the children ; and ten times before I ventured
' It is beyond them '. I was brought to the firm convic-
tion that all instruction, to have a truly enlightening
and cultivating influence, must be drawn out of chil-
dren and, as it were, begotten within their minds " {How
Gertrude Teaches).
Again he says : " The idea of elementary education,
to which I have devoted my life, consists in re-estab-
lishing the course of nature, and in developing and
172 PESTALOZZL
improving the tendencies and powers of humanity "
{Swans Song). It is interesting to compare this state-
ment with one by so modern, and competent, an au-
thority as Sir James Crichton Browne : " Education is
the guidance of growth ".
*' Elementary education, accurately defined, is the
outcome of the efforts of the human race to give such
assistance to the course of nature in the development
and perfecting of our powers, as the intelligent love,
the trained thought, and the enlightened artistic sense
of our race are capable of giving. Left to itself the
course of nature is only quickened by the animal in-
stincts. It is the duty of the race, and the aim of
elementary education — as of religion and wisdom — to
animate the course of nature by human and divine in-
fluences. . . . Only that which takes possession of man
as a whole (heart, mind and hand) is educative in the
true sense of the word, and in accordance with nature.
Anything which does not so take possession of him, is
not in accord with nature, and is not, therefore, in the
true sense of the word, humanly educative. All one-
sided development of any one of our powers is not true
education " (Swan's Song).
" What natural instinct has done unconsciously, but
with sure and certain success, the educator must con-
tinue, through his insight and intuitive knowledge ;
what has resulted from the necessities of nature, must
be continued by education, guided by reason : and must
be equally thorough and complete in its treatment and as
certain of success " (On the Idea of Elementary Education).
" Man can, at best, do no more than assist the
child's nature in the effort which it makes for its own
development ; and to do this, so that the impressions
WHAT EDUCATION IS. 173
made upon the child may always be commensurate, and
in harmony, with the measure and character of the
powers already unfolded in him, is the great secret of
education. The perceptions to which a child is led by
his instruction must, therefore, necessarily be subjected
to a certain order of succession, the beginning of which
must be adapted to the very first unfolding of the child's
powers, and its progress kept exactly parallel with that
of the child's own development. [We must] discover
those successions throughout the whole range of human
knowledge, but especially in those essentials in which
the development of the human mind takes its beginning "
(How Gertrude Teaches).
Pestalozzi is very definite in his view that the idea of
education must be such that it clearly recognises that
human life is evolutionary in its processes — what we
should now call the organic and genetic view of education.
He says that elementary education deals, essentially,
with human nature as a unity, as a whole ; and with
the whole system of its powers and dispositions. " The
idea of elementary education is a general idea which
must necessarily be divided into moral, mental and
physical education for purposes of exposition and ap-
plication, but such single divisions never occur in human
life : on the contrary, the moral, mental and physical
always interpenetrate, for human nature is a unity"
{On the Idea of Elementary Education). He makes use
of several analogies to show what he means, e.g., "A
child is a being endowed with all the faculties of human
nature, but none of them developed : a bud not yet
opened. When the bud uncloses every one of the leaves
unfolds, not one remains behind. Such must be the
process of education " {On Infants Education).
174 PESTALOZZI.
Again in his treatise On the Idea of Elementary Educa-
tion, he says that education must imitate the processes
of nature. In every plant, at every stage of growth,
there is a harmonious and interdependent development
of substance and form, so that at any and every period
of its growth, the plant is (i) complete in its whole
being, i.e., neither too advanced nor too backward in any
particular details, but a well-balanced whole; and (2)
incomplete, inasmuch as it is always growing. Just so,
in education, the child must always appear to be' both
complete and incomplete : complete as to the particular
stage of its development, incomplete as to its unending
development. The pupil must grow out of himself into
his surroundings and position.
Education must provide whatever is necessary to
nourish every single human power : the activities and
exercises which shall call forth and improve each and
every faculty: and the proper gradation of such
exercises so as to suit the increasing capacity and
strength of such powers and faculties. A child is a
living self-active force which, from the earliest moment
of its being, acts organically on its own development.
Nothing can efficiently act upon the child unless the
child acts upon it. The laws and activities of the child,
as an organism, are within itself. Whatever nature, the
mother, and the domestic surroundings may give to the
child in the way of stimulations and impressions — so
absolutely necessary for its existence and well-being —
these only impel and condition the child's activities ;
they have not, and cannot have, any power over the
nature of these activities. Human capacities develop
out of themselves and according to their own nature :
experiences are the cause of the particular form and
WHAT EDUCATION IS. 175
content of the development, but not of its being and
fundamental characteristics.
A typical summary definition is given in the following
passage : " Education does not consist in a series of ad-
monitions and corrections, of rewards and punishments,
of injunctions and directions, strung together without
unity of purpose, or dignity of execution ; it ought to
present an unbroken chain of measures, originating in
the same principle : a knowledge of the constant laws
of our nature ; practised in the same spirit : a spirit of
benevolence and firmness ; and leading to the same end :
the elevation of man to the true dignity of a spiritual
being" {On Infants Education).
Perhaps the clearest and fullest expression of Pesta-
lozzi's view of the organic and genetic nature of edu-
cation is given in the following: "The mechanism of
nature is everywhere sublime but simple. Imitate it,
oh man ! Imitate nature, that from the seed of the
greatest tree produces at first nothing but a hardly per-
ceptible growth, which slowly and insensibly increasing
from day to day, and hour to hour, gradually develops
into trunk, branches, twigs and leaves. Observe care-
fully how nature protects and strengthens each new part
as it is developed, that it may serve in its turn as the
source of still further development.
" Observe hov^7 the flower only develops after having
been formed in the heart of the bud, how the beauty of
its first days soon passes away, giving place to the fruit,
as yet but a feeble growth, but already complete in its
essential features ; and how for months this fruit hang-
ing to the branch which nourishes it, grows and develops
till finally, ripe and perfect, it falls from the tree.
" Observe how nature no sooner brings the first shoot
iy6 PESTALOZZI.
above the ground than it sends forth the first sprouting
of the root, and gradually carries deep into the bosom
of the earth the noblest part of the tree ; how by a subtle
process it develops the stationary trunk from the very
heart of the root, and the branches from the heart of the
trunk ; how, to each part, no matter how feeble or how
subordinate, it supplies the necessary nurture — yet
there is nothing useless, inappropriate, or superfluous "
{How Gertrude Teaches).
In another place he writes: ''The moral, spiritual
and artistic capabilities of our nature must grow out of
themselves". "The gardener plants and waters, but
God giveth the increase." As Raumer well remarks on
these statements: "It is not the educator that im-
plants any faculty in man ; it is not the educator that
gives breath and life to any faculty : he only takes care
that no external influence shall fetter and disturb the
natural course of the development of man's individual
faculties," and, we may add, does all that learning, wis-
dom, practical skill and opportunity enable him to
supply the best of everything needed for the best de-
velopment.
Pestalozzi's estimate of the importance of the organic
and genetic elements in the principles of education was
by no means incidental or superficial : he grasped both
their historical and scientific values. He says : " Nature
required ages to raise the race to perfect power of speech,
yet we learn this art in a few months. [But] we must
take exactly the same course as nature followed with the
human race." Again : " Apart from all special teach-
ing, I have endeavoured to find the nature of teaching
itself; and the original type according to which nature
herself has determined the instruction of our race ".
WHAT EDUCATION IS. 1 77
Froebel clearly recognised this idea of organic de-
velopment in Pestalozzi's system. Writing to the Prin-
cess Regent of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on 27th April,
i8og, to report as to his opinion of Pestalozzi's prin-
ciples and work — ^Froebel being at that time resident in
the institution of Yverdon — he says: " He has a whole
man in his eye, as an unseparated and inseparable
whole, and in all that he does and wishes to do for him
and his cultivation, he does it for him as a whole. At no
time does he act only for the development of one power,
leaving the others without nourishment ; for example,
he is never acting for the mind alone and leaving un-
considered, unsatisfied, uncared for, inactive, the body
and the soul, all the powers are cared for at all times.
" But often one or other of the three great divisions
of man's nature stands forth and apparently dominates
the others.
" Pestalozzi takes into view man according to and in
his manifestations, according to the laws of nature, and
those which are grounded in the mind of man, when he
works specially upon the predominating power ; it is not
done in an isolated and divided way, but in order to
work through his treatment upon the other equal but
slumbering and resting powers. So, for example, in one
and the same epoch upon the senses, through these
upon the body, and through these again upon the
feelings, and so on in a perpetual round."
Similarly Herbart writes: "A perfect regularity in
the sequence of studies adapted to all requirements was
to me the ideal which I looked upon as the ever present
means of ensuring to all instruction its real efficiency.
It was the discovery of this sequence, of the arrange-
ment and co-ordination of what was to be learned con-
12
178 PESTALOZZI.
temporaneously and what consecutively, which formed,
as I understood it, Pestalozzi's chief aim " (Herbart's
letter on How Gertrude Teaches),
Intellectual education is declared by Pestalozzi to be
the pure development of our power of knowing — the
reason — by the perfectly simple method of making the
use of the reason habitual. Now all the activities of
the mind are exercised upon (i) the mental results of
those original impressions which the objects of the
outer world make upon us, and (2) the analysing, com-
paring and combining of such mental results. Educa-
tion must, therefore, be based upon, imitate, and assist
the natural processes of the mind, i.e., it must be psy-
chological. Pestalozzi said : " I want to psychologise
education ".
V. The Process of Intellectual Education.
It is clear, from the above, that the starting-point of
intellectual education must be the impressions made
upon the mind by experiences, for these are the only
materials upon which mind can act ; and they have, so
to say, a compelling force to which the mind inevitably
responds. The result of the action and reaction, be-
tween the mind and the impression, is that an intel-
lectual product is formed — an idea. To illustrate what
Pestalozzi means, we may give this example : if a piece
of ice is put into the hand of a child this produces a
certain effect upon consciousness, which we express by
saying that the mind has the idea of coldness. Of
course the child need have no knowledge of the name
''coldness". The effect upon consciousness is, under
ordinary circumstances, inevitable and absolute ; and
there must necessarily be set up in the mind what we
INTUITION THE FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION. 1 79
call the idea of coldness. Such fundamental elements
are involved in all ideas ; and by their combinations and
relations (through judgment) are derived complex ideas.
Thus we arrive at the very heart and centre of Pesta-
lozzi's theory of education. All mental life and activity
begins in this way, therefore all true education must
begin, continue and end in this way. He speaks of
these fundamental processes as anschauung. This word
has been variously translated into English as (i) intui-
tion, (2) sense-impression, and (3) observation. We
shall follow Pestalozzi's own plan and use all three
terms, because they express the various phases of its
meaning, viz., (i) of seemingly direct cognition or im-
mediate knowing ; and (2) the mediate knowing of ex-
ternal things, for which there must be both observation
and sense-impression. Pestalozzi, in one place, defines
anschauung thus: "It is simply the actual manifesta-
tion of external things, and the raising in consciousness
the impression which they excite".
This original or native capacity for knowing is well
put in another passage in which Pestalozzi says : " I
endeavoured to investigate the exact time of life when
instruction begins, and I soon arrived at the conviction
that the first hour of instruction is the hour of birth :
the first tutor is nature : and her tuition begins from
the moment when the child's senses are opened to the
impressions of the surrounding world. The feeling
of novelty by which life first surprises the infant, is in
itself nothing else than the first waking up of the capa-
bility of receiving those impressions. It is the arousing
of all the germs of physical powers, whose growth is
completed, and whose whole energy and sole tendency
is now directed towards their expansion and cultivation.
12 *
l8o PESTALOZZI.
The animal is entirely formed, and something above the
animal is awakened in it, which, while it clearly testi-
fies the destination of the new-born being for a human
existence, gives him at the same time a positive impulse
towards the attainment of that purpose."
That the wider meaning of the term is used by Pesta-
lozzi is clearly shown by his own statement : " Anschau-
ung is the immediate and direct impression produced
by the world on our inner and outer senses, i.e., the im-
pressions of the moral world on our moral sense, and of
the physical universe on our bodily senses ".
This, so to say, is the germ form of knowing. If the
mind could not know for itself, as we say, it could not
be taught to know ; any more than a blind man could
be taught to see. As Professor James says: "The
mere existence of a thing outside the brain is not a suf-
ficient cause for our knowing it : it must strike the brain
in some way, as well as be there, to be known. But
the brain being struck, the knowledge is constituted by
a new construction that occurs altogether in the mind.
. . . And when once there, the knowledge may remain
there, whatever becomes of the thing."
Pestalozzi has expressed his own view of the import-
ance of this in education. He writes : " If I look back
and ask myself what I have really done towards the
improvement of the methods of elementary instruction,
I find that in recognising intuition as the absolute basis
of all knowledge, I have established the first and most
important principle of instruction ; and that, setting
aside all particular systems of instruction, I have en-
deavoured to discover what ought to be the character
of the instruction itself, and what are the fundamental
laws according to which the education of human nature
INTUITION THE FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION. l8l
must be determined in accordance with nature ". He
also remarks: *' Intuition is the absolute basis of all
knowledge ; in other words, all knowledge must proceed
from intuition and must admit of being retraced to that
source " (How Gertrude Teaches),
To use an illustration to emphasise Pestalozzi's point,
we may say that he argues that just as in geometry
(Euclid) all the most complex and important proofs and
demonstrations grow out of the axioms — which are, in
fact, intellectual intuitions — and postulates and must,
in the last resource, be resolvable into them ; so all the
higher developments of thought and reason are based
upon, and resolvable into, those beginnings of knowledge
which he called intuitions.
Now, the mind not only does achieve these intuitions,
but it has, so to say, a longing and a desire to form
them as often, and as much, as possible. Man has an
inborn, instinctive, tendency to exercise, to the fullest
extent, each and every power he possesses. As Pesta-
lozzi so well expresses it: "We attain all our know-
ledge through the infinite charm that the tree of
knowledge has for the sensibility of our nature "
{How Gertrude Teaches). This instinct for activity is
aroused and augmented by every influence which acts
upon it, as well as by its own native impulses.
Hence we may say that the learner is, in a sense, able
to create out of his own activities an organised body of
knowledge about life. Education, from this point of
view, is simply the art of assisting nature in its efforts
after its own development. This is the reason for say-
ing that thought must be developed from thinking.
Thought can only grow out of what it is into what we
wish it to be — its better, and best, forms. We must
1 82 PESTALOZZI.
start all intellectual (and other) progress from the be-
ginnings which the child makes — inevitably and neces-
sarily makes — for itself, whenever the right conditions
are present.
" It is life that educates," must be the foundation
principle of all true education, i.e., such as is in har-
mony with Nature. The mere opening of the eyes,
hearing of sounds, touching of things, and so on, are all
educative processes ; but they are not necessarily the
best, or even a good, form of education. The educator
is to the education of life, what the gardener is to the
garden : he removes the weeds and all injurious things ;
and provides, as far as possible, every good and helpful
condition for the fullest living and the best growth.
But the growth and all that is produced is of the living
organism ; the man can only influence the growth and
the products — towards perfection — by making the con-
ditions the best possible.
Knowledge comes, through intuitions, in several differ-
ent ways, viz., (i) By Accident, i.e., from any and every
impression which may influence the individual as he goes
through life. Knowledge so gained is, necessarily, more
or less irregular, confused, of slow growth, and limited.
(2) From Environment, i.e., the special conditions which
immediately surround a person. This is largely deter-
mined by parents and teachers, and its value will depend
upon their knowledge and skill in ordering and using
the surroundings. (3) From Study, i.e., the self-directed
search for knowledge. Perceptions thus gained are
of the highest possible value in themselves, and will
qualify us for self-education. (4) From Occupation, which
gives us chiefly moral perceptions, or ideas of duty,
virtue and justice, We are also much helped towards
HOW KNOWLEDGE GROWS. 1 83
clear ideas by knowledge gained in this way. (5) From
Analogy and Reasonings by which we are able to judge
of the nature of things which have never directly acted
upon our minds, by making a constructive (reasoned)
use of the knowledge which we have gained from im-
mediate impressions from things. We are able to get
knowledge from knowledge ; e.g.y a child who has learned
to observe with elementary accuracy only a few farm-
houses, and accurately to express such observations in
words, has thereby got to know the essential parts of
architecture, and can apply his ideas to the under-
standing of buildings which he has never seen {How
Gertrude Teaches).
Knowledge passes through several stages, viz., from
confused to definite perceptions ; from definite to clear
perceptions ; from clear perceptions to distinct ideas.
This development in the perfecting of our ideas is
brought about by grouping, separating and comparing
the objects of perception. Objects often impress us in
such a way that only some of their unimportant or ac-
cidental qualities become known to us. Thus we may
be led to form very wrong, or misleading, ideas about
them ; but by grouping objects which have the same
essential qualities, our insight into their real nature is
made more complete and correct, and we are much less
likely to be led astray by single impressions.
By separating and comparing objects we are able to
arrive at the simplest elements of our perceptions — and
the most complex perception can be thus reduced to
its simplest elements — and so to raise our definite and
clear conceptions to distinct ideas. There is no need
to force all this on the learner, for the mind itself is so
constituted that it involuntarily and irresistibly desires
1 84 PESTALOZZI.
thus to obtain distinct ideas. All that is required is
that sufficient help should be given to enable the pupil
to do this with the greatest certainty of success.
Since intuition is the foundation of all knowledge and,
therefore, of the higher intellectual processes, viz., judg-
ment and reasoning, it is most important that our in-
tuitions should be accurate. No judgment or reasoning
can be sound and complete unless the intuitions upon
which it is founded are full and perfect. No higher step
should, therefore, be attempted until the lower ones
are thoroughly known. We must first get a complete
mastery over the simple elements, and a facility in the
use of them, before going forward to something more
complex. We must proceed step by step ; each step
being only a very slight addition to the previous one.
Observation is the great instrument in the formation
of perceptions [of external things] ; and care must be
taken to observe the best and most characteristic
specimens of any class of things, i.e., such as will give
a correct idea of the real thing and of its most impor-
tant qualities. For example, a lame, one-eyed, or six-
fingered man would not convey a proper idea of the
human form. When a suitable specimen has been
properly observed, there arises the necessity of naming
it ; after naming it we proceed to discover its parts and
properties, and name these, i.e., describe the object ; and,
finally, from a clear description of it we draft a definition,
i.e., an expression of the distinct idea of the object. The
accuracy and value of the definition will obviously de-
pend upon the fulness and exactness of the observation
and description ; and these will, in turn, depend upon
the vitality and wisdom of the method of training of
the children to habits of observation.
HOW WE GET CLEAR IDEAS. 1 85
Pestalozzi gives an emphatic warning against the
great danger of substituting mere talks for real observa-
tions. He says: " It is a mere fallacy to conclude, or
to pretend, that knowledge has been acquired from
the fact that terms have been memorised, which, if
rightly understood, convey the expression of knowledge.
This condition if rightly understood, which is the most
material, is the most generally overlooked. . . . To
guard against an error of this kind, the first rule is to
teach always by things rather than by words. Let
there be as few objects as possible named to the child,
unless you are prepared to show the objects themselves.
... Of objects which cannot be brought before the
child in reality, pictures should be introduced " {On
Infants' Education).
We should not, in the early stages, make use of any
truths which are not the outcome of our own intuitions.
Every truth which is presented to the learner through
verbal forms, and is not based in its essential elements
on his own perceptions, remains, so to say, in the air —
it has no means of really and truly connecting itself, in
the child's mind, with that to which it relates. Endless
truths so presented to the mind have far less educative
influence on the development of thought than a single
one based upon actual perception.
Pestalozzi sums up by saying that he found " that all
our knowledge proceeds from three elementary powers:
(i) from the power of making sounds : the origin of lan-
guage ; (2) from the indefinite, simple sense-power of
forming images, out of which springs the consciousness
of all forms ; and (3) from the definite, but no longer mere
sense-power, of imagination, from which must be derived
the consciousness of unity, and therewith the ability
1 86 PESTALOZZI.
for calculating and reckoning. . . . The art of educat-
ing the race must be based upon the first and simplest
results of these three foundation-powers : sound, form
and number . . . recognised by Nature herself as the
common starting-point of all instruction.
" In consequence of this recognition they must be in-
corporated in forms which, universally and harmoniously,
arise from the results of the three elementary powers of
our nature, and which tend, essentially and surely, to
make all instruction a steady and unbroken develop-
ment of these fundamental powers, used in common
and regarded as equally important. Only in this way
is it at all possible to lead us, in all three branches,
from obscure to definite sense-impressions, from definite
sense-impressions to clear images, and from clear images
to distinct ideas. Here ... I find the Art [of Educa-
tion] ... a common basis of all the methods and arts
of instruction. . . . Through knowing the unity, and
form, and name of any object, the knowledge of it he-
comes precise ; by gradually learning its other attributes
the knowledge of it becomes clear ; and through con-
sciousness of its totality the knowledge becomes distinct"
{How Gertrude Teaches).
In building up complete perceptions — the results of
complete sense-impressions of all the parts of an object
— the following points should be observed : (i) The
process should be very gradual, and each step com-
pletely and indelibly fixed in the mind. (2) All our
perceptions should be related in our minds in a way
exactly resembling the relation of the actual objects in
nature. (3) All subordinates and non-essentials in real
things should be represented in our minds by percep-
tions which are regarded as subordinates and non-
HOW WE GET CLEAR IDEAS. iS/
essentials. (4) Impressions of important things should
be made clearer and stronger by bringing the objects
near and letting them act on the various senses. Let
it not be forgotten, e.g., that the perception of size de-
pends upon the nearness or remoteness of physical
objects. (5) All actions of physical things should be
regarded as absolutely necessary : as the manifestations
of the power which unites the seemingly diverse ele-
ments which compose things, and which acts so that the
things may fulfil their proper functions. (6) Regard this
physical necessity as, nevertheless, having the elements
of freedom and independence.
Pestalozzi believed that these steps in the develop-
ment of complete perceptions are based upon the essen-
tial laws of nature, and have, collectively, a threefold
source. The first source is nature itself, through the
power of which the mind rises from vague sense-im-
pressions to clear ideas. Herein are the foundations of
the laws which give these educational principles, (i)
All sense-impressions, in so far as they come from the
essential nature of an object, help to form correct ideas ;
whilst in so far as they belong to the accidental qualities
of an object they are sources of error; (2) to correct
ideas thus formed, and firmly impressed on the mind,
many related sense-impressions can be easily — as it
were involuntarily — added ; (3) the more strongly a
correct idea is impressed, the more easily it develops
rightly : and the more strongly a wrong idea is im-
pressed, the more it develops wrongly; (4) by associat-
ing like ideas, gained from like objects, insight into
their inner truth becomes essentially and universally
deeper, clearer and surer : one-sided and biassed im-
pressions are thereby weakened ; and incomplete and
1 88 PESTALOZZT.
wrong views are avoided ; (5) the most complex sense-
impressions are based upon simple ones : make clear
the simple, and the complex will become simple ; (6)
the more senses employed in getting impressions of a
thing, the more accurate will be the knowledge of it.
These truths rest upon the nature of physical things
and the nature of the mind.
The second source is the power of sense-impression,
which is intimately interwoven with the sensibility of
our nature. This acts in two ways : firstly, in our
desiring to experience and know everything ; and
secondly, in our desiring to enjoy everything. The
former stimulates to activity whilst the latter tends to
passivity ; and they, so far, counteract each other. The
former arouses curiosity, whilst the latter secures an
opportunity for calm judgment. The former collects
knowledge, the latter ripens it.
The third source lies in the relation of our outer cir-
cumstance to our perceiving-power. Man, so to say,
makes his own world out of the circumstances by which
he is surrounded : he learns all the realities of the
world, in their merely physical aspects, wholly in the
measure that the objects of the world which come to
him through intuition [sense-impression] approach the
centre in which he spins and weaves — for he is like a
spider which is bound to the centre of the web which
he spins himself. Growth is adaptation to environment.
This outline, drawn from How Gertrude Teaches, gives
us a bird's-eye view of Pestalozzi's educational psy-
chology. He endeavours to work out these laws and
principles in his methods of teaching, and we can better
understand what he means by them by discovering how
he applies them to practical education. The correspon-
HOW WE GET CLEAR IDEAS. 1 89
dence of his views with those of modern psychologists
— always remembering that Pestalozzi was a pioneer —
concerning the following points, is well worth particular
attention : that the law of evolution prevails in all
things : that development is organic and genetic : that
ideas are developed through sense-impressions and per-
cepts : that sense life is a susceptibility to external in-
fluences and all mental life is a striving to know : and
that all growth is an adaptation to environment.
From the consideration of the general laws of nature
and mind, so far as they concern the processes of educa-
tion, Pestalozzi proceeds to what he regards as the laws
which govern the action of mind as a thinking organism.
The most potent means for making our perceptions
clear and distinct, is the use of our knowledge of number,
form and language. When a confused mass of objects
is brought to our notice, we can only hope to make it
clear and intelligible to ourselves by asking: (i) how
many things, and how many kinds of things, are there ?
(2) what is their appearance : their shape or outline ?
and (3) what are the names and words which describe
each ? The reason for this, says Pestalozzi, is that
" All possible objects necessarily have number, form
and name ; but the remaining properties which the
senses enable us to perceive are not possessed by an
object in common with all others, but one property is
shared with one object, and another property with
another object ". He adds that all the other qualities
of things, which are made known to us by the senses,
can be directly connected with the three elements :
number, form and language. These are, according to
Pestalozzi, the Necessary Forms of Thought.
In his letters On Infants' Education he writes about
190 PESTALOZZI.
"those exercises, which were adopted at my suggestion,
as calculated to employ the mind usefully, and to pre-
pare it for further pursuits, by eliciting thought and
forming the intellect. I would call them preparatory
exercises, in more than one respect. They embrace the
elements of number, form and language ; and whatever
ideas we may have to acquire in the course of our life,
they are all introduced through the medium of one of
these three departments.
'*The relations and proportions of number and form
constitute the natural measure of all those impressions
which the mind receives from without. They are the
measures, and comprehend the qualities, of the material
world ; form being the measure of space, and number
the measure of time. Two or more objects, dis-
tinguished from each other, as existing separately in
space, pre-suppose an idea of their forms, or in other
words, of the exact space which they occup)^ ; dis-
tinguished from each other as existing at different
times, they come under the denomination of number."
Speaking of the foundation idea — Anschaming — of all
Pestalozzi's thought and work, Herbart calls it " the
grand idea (Anschaming) of the genial, the noble Pesta-
lozzi ". He adds : "The discoverer has worked out the
same for only a narrow sphere, that of elementary edu-
cation ; it belongs, however, to the whole of educa-
tion, but it needs for that an extended development ".
Herbart himself endeavoured to supply this extension in
his educational writings.
VI. The Work of the Teacher as Educator.
From Pestalozzi's theories and principles of education
it is quite clear what the function of the true educator
THE teacher's FUNCTION. I9I
is ; but Pestalozzi has also told us in set terms what he
considers it to be. It will be sufficient for us to give
extracts from his writings, leaving the reader to relate
them to what has gone before.
The educator's work consists " in a continual benevo-
lent superintendence, with the aim of calling forth all
the powers which Providence has implanted in man.
. . . Giving a helping hand to the instinctive efforts
after self-development.
" The art of instruction consists in removing the con-
fusion of the indefinite succession of preceptions, by
distinguishing the objects from each other, and reunit-
ing those that are analogous or related to each other, in
one idea, which is to comprehend them all ; and present
them to the mind in that clearness and distinctness
which is obtained by separating their essential and
common properties from the accidental peculiarities of
each single object. First he must detach each percep-
tion from those with which it is, in nature, interwoven ;
then he must [get the child to] observe each single per-
ception through all the variations and changes to which
it is liable ; and, lastly, he must [get the child to] de-
termine its proper place in the circle of knowledge
which has been already acquired ; so that he advances
progressively from confusion to distinctness, from dis-
tinctness to clearness, and from clearness to insight "
{How Gertrude Teaches),
In connection with this selective function of the edu-
cator Pestalozzi gives an interesting concrete example.
He says that it is undesirable for children to go into the
woods and meadows in order to learn about trees and
plants. " Trees and plants do not there stand in the
order best adapted to make the character of each class
192 PESTALOZZI.
apparent ; and to prepare the mind by the first impres-
sions of the objects for a general acquaintance with this
department of science " {How Gertrude Teaches).
The only way to help children ''to a real develop-
ment of their mental faculties is : (i) Gradually to en-
large the sphere of their intuition, i.e., to increase the
number of objects falling under their own immediate
perception. (2) To impress upon them those percep-
tions of which they have become conscious with cer-
tainty, clearness and precision. (3) To impart to them
a comprehensive knowledge of language, for the ex-
pression of whatever has become, or is becoming, an
object of their consciousness, in consequence either of
the spontaneous impulse of their own nature, or of the
assistance of instruction " {How Gertrude Teaches).
The educator must find out the objects best suited to
call forth every sense : the actions which shall arouse
the activity of every faculty of the child : the proper
gradation of the simplicity and complexity of such
objects and actions, so that they shall be in accordance
with the increasing capacity of the senses, and the ex-
tension of the powers. Both objects and actions should
be presented in attractive, powerful and pleasant forms.
If this be done the effects will be most truly educative ;
and the child will be as animated and happy in its
school hours as in its playtime. If the food necessary
for fulness of life is properly presented it is only neces-
sary to lead children, never to drive them, to it.
Since the beginning of the human race, men have
been trying to make easier the progress of the learner
from the elements of the culture of the power of intuition
to the elements of the culture of the power of thought ;
and at raising the common sense which is gained by the
THE TEACHER'S FUNCTION. I93
simple perception of objects of Nature to the level of
the logical certainty of the power of thought and judg-
ment. The educator has to continue this.
The work of the educator is to see that the child's
human instincts are exercised in human affairs ; and to
do this by causing self-activity and self-realisation from
within, not by dictating or enforcing a cut-and-dried
system from without. He must secure the positive
quickening of what is good ; not the mere repression of
what is evil, in the child. Truth must be so cultivated
that falsehood is, as it were, crowded out : the intellec-
tual and moral powers must be made so strong that the
sensuous powers are overwhelmed. In the mind of the
educator there must always be the clear and conscious
aim of serving the divine nature in the child, so as to
help it to its full development, and in no way to hinder
or harm it. But the educator must serve only the
life and the law of the child's nature, not its whims
or its personal preferences.
Instruction must be given through a series of exer-
cises so graduated by the educator, that the starting-
point is, in every case, well within the comprehension
of the pupil ; and the consecutive progress through the
series must always exercise the pupil's powers, without
exhausting them, so that there is a continuous, easy
and attractive progress, in which knowledge and the
practical application of it are always closely connected.
In concluding this study of Pestalozzi as a thinker
we will give five outline summaries of his theory of edu-
cation. Three of these are by men who knew Pesta-
lozzi well, and worked with him — Fischer, Niederer
and Dr. Mayo ; and two of them are by able commenta-
tors on Pestalozzi's theories — Morf and Payne,
13
194
PESTALOZZI.
FISCHER.
I. To give the mind an
intensive culture, and not
simply extensive : to in-
crease the strength and skill
of all the powers of the
mind, and not to content
oneself vi^ith furnishing it
■with many and various
ideas.
2. To furnish the mind
with fundamental data,
mother ideas, for all its
operations.
3. To connect all in-
struction with the study of
language.
4. To simplify the me-
chanism of instruction and
study.
5. To popularise science.
NIEDERER.
I. The aim is the de-
velopment of man as a
whole, with all his moral,
physical, and intellectual
powers ; the particular
lines of the development
depending upon his posi-
tion in the world — in other
words, upon the actual life
that awaits him.
2. The starting-point of
the exercises in instruction
is to be found in the notions
the child has already ac-
quired, in his present
tastes, needs and powers.
3. The comiection of the
exercises in instruction is
the order in which they
follow each other, which
order must be so carefully
graduated that each exer-
cise shall give the child the
desire and the power to do
the next.
MAYO.
, I. Education should be
essentially religious : Its
end and aim should be
to lead a creature, born
for immortality, to that
conformity to the image
of God in which the glory
and happiness of immor-
tality consists.
2. It should be essen-
tially moral — Moral in-
struction, to be availing,
must be the purified and
elevated expression of a
moral life, actually per-
vading the scene of edu-
cation.
3. It must be directed
by an influence essenti-
ally parental.
4. It should be essen-
tially organic — the de-
velopment of the human
faculties (moral, intel-
lectual and physical)
from within, by a pro-
cess of expansion and
growth ; through self-
activity and liberty.
I 5. The development of
all the faculties should be
harmonious : to preserve
the equipoise within the
mental, moral and physi-
cal spheres, and between
the three.
6. It should be based
^on intuitions.
7. It should be gradual
and progressive — every
age has its own mental,
moral and physical
claims.
8. It should be free and
natural, not cramped,
confined and servile.
g. It should be analyti-
cal— everything taught
. should be reduced to its
^simplest elements.
OUTLINE SUMMARIES.
195
MORF.
I. The foundation of in-
struction is intuition [An-
sckauung-, i.e., the effect of
outward objects on the
senses, and the effect on
the consciousness of the
impressions made on the
senses by outward objects].
2. Language must be con-
nected with intuition.
3. The time for learning
is not the time for judging
and criticising.
4. In each branch, in-""
struction must begin with
the simplest elements, and
proceed step by step ac-
cording to the development
of the child, i.e., by a
sequence of steps which are
psychologically connected.
5. Instruction must fol-
low the path of develop-
ment not that of lecturing
or telling.
6. Instruction must be
subordinated to the end of
education. J
PAYNE.
1. The principles of education are not to be devised
ad extra ; they are to be sought for in human nature.
2. This nature is an organic nature — a plexus of
bodily, intellectual and moral capabilities, ready for
development, and struggling to develop themselves.
3. Self-development begins with the impressions
received by the mind from external objects. These
impressions (called sensations), when the mind be-
comes conscious of them, group themselves into
I perceptions. These are registered in the mind as
\ conceptions or ideas, and constitute that elementary
I knowledge which is the basis of all knowledge,
j 4. All education (including instruction) must be
I grounded on the learner's own observation [An-
I schauung) at first hand — on his own personal ex-
Lperience. This is the true basis of all knowledge.
4 [cont.). First the reality, then the symbol ;
first the thing, then the word, not vice versa.
5. That which the learner has gained by his own
observation and which, as a part of his personal
■< experience is incorporated with his mind, he knows
and can describe or explain in his own words. His
competency to do this is the measure of the ac-
curacy of his observation, and consequently of his
knowledge.
6. The education conducted by the formal educator
has both a negative and a positive side. The former
consists in removing impediments, so as to afford
scope for the learner's self-development. The latter
is to stimulate the learner to the exercise of his
powers, to furnish materials and occasion for the
exercise, and to superintend and maintain the action
of the machinery.
7. Personal experience necessitates the advance-
ment of the learner's mind from the near and actual,
with which he is in contact, and which he can deal
with himself, to the more remote ; therefore from the
concrete to the abstract, from particulars to generals,
from the known to the unknown. This is the method
of elementary education ; the opposite proceeding —
the usual proceeding of our traditional teaching . . .
is the scientific method — a method suited only to the
advanced learner, who, it assumes, is already trained
by the elementary method.
13
196
PESTALOZZI.
MORF.
7. The instructor must
dwell upon each step long
enough to ensure that the
child gets a thorough grasp
of, and control over, the new
matter.
8. The chief aim of ele-
mentary instruction is to
develop and increase the
powers of the child's mind,
not the acquisition of know-
ledge or skill.
9. With knowledge must
come power, with informa-
tion skill,
10. The relations between
educator and pupil, and
school discipline in par-
ticular, must be based on
and controlled by love.
11. The individuality of
the pupil must be sacred to
the educator.
PAYNE.
8. Practical aptness or faculty, depends more on
habits gained by the assiduous oft-repeated exercise
of the learner's active powers than on knowledge
alone. Knowing and doing must, however, proceed
together. The chief aim of all education (including
instruction) is the development of the learner's powers.
9. Spontaneity and self-activity are the necessary
conditions under which the mind educates itself and
gains power and independence.
CHAPTER XL
PESTALOZZrS METHODS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE,
FORM AND NUMBER.
In describing the methods which Pestalozzi used in
teaching the above subjects, we shall take the subjects
in the order of importance and value which he appeared
to attach to them. "The impression made on the
senses by form and number precedes the art of speech,
but the art of sense-impression and arithmetic come
after the art of speech." Although he says that " what-
ever ideas we may have to acquire in the course of our
life are all introduced through the medium of one of
these departments," i.e.^ number, form and language ;
this does not mean, as it at first seems to suggest, that
reading, writing and arithmetic are to be regarded as
the foundations of education.
Notwithstanding the fact that he says that " Upon
these three fundamental points [number, form and
language] all elementary instruction is to be built : and
it is evident, therefore, that the object of our first exer-
tions in education must be to develop and strengthen,
in that manner which is most conformable to nature,
the faculties of number, of form, and of language, since
upon the healthy state, as it were, of those faculties,
the correctness of our perceptions essentially depends " ;
his experience convinced him that reading, writing and
197
198 PESTALOZZI.
arithmetic, far from being the foundation elements of
instruction, ought to be regarded as subordinate ones.
" It is well done to make a child read, and write, and
learn, and repeat — but it is still better to make a child
think" {On Infants' Education),
This apparent contradiction is easily explained : the
elements of knowledge in number, form and language
must first be learned, before they can be used in getting
further knowledge. How are these to be learned ? As
we shall see, when dealing with them, they are to be
learned through acquiring and developing intuitions, i.e.,
by means of what we now call object lessons. The
"Three R's " are taught through object lessons: there-
fore the latter is primary, and the former secondary.
As Pestalozzi puts it : *' There are two ways of in-
structing : either we go from words to things, or from
things to words. Mine is the second method."
I. Language "Teaching — or the Teaching of Sound
through Object Lessons.
Pestalozzi says : " In teaching the child language we
ought to follow the same course which nature took.
Nature undoubtedly began with intuition. The first
simple sound by which man attempted to communicate
the impression produced upon him by some object, was
the expression of an intuition. . . . From this point
language gradually advanced : man began to observe
the characteristic features of those objects to which he
had given names, and to form words to designate their
proportions, their actions, and their powers. It was
not until a much later period that he invented the art
of modifying one and the same word according to
number, time, and so on." Again: "The savage first
LANGUAGE-TEACHING. I99
names the object, then draws it, and then connects it
very simply — after first learning its qualities, varying
according to time and circumstance — with words,
through terminations and combinations, so as to be
able to define it more closel}^ " {How Gertrude Teaches).
Before children are ready to learn to read, they must
have learnt to talk ; and to do this they must be taught
to feel and to think. There must be a considerable
development in general knowledge, through percep-
tions ; and in knowledge of language, through speak-
ing ; before we begin to teach reading or letters. The
study of language is analysable into : (i) the study of
sounds, i.e., phonetics by which the several organs of
speech are developed ; (2) the study of words, i.e., the
means of teaching a knowledge of individual objects ;
and (3) the study of speech, i.e., the means of teaching
composition, or the correct method of expressing all that
is known about objects and their qualities. Language
thus taught has its highest value in helping the learner
to clearness of conception. The ignorance of the lower
classes is mainly owing to the fact that they have not
thus been taught how to speak.
The development of the faculty of language is in-
separably associated with the development of the faculty
of intuition. It is only as a child gets fuller and more
exact intuitions that he can get a greater and more pre-
cise use of language. The way to extend a child's
command of language is to increase and quicken his
power of intuition. The mere sounds of language are
empty and barren ; it is only when they are consciously
connected with the contents of intuitions that they
become true human speech. Here also it is life that
educates ; and the training in language, that is in
200 PESTALOZZI.
intuition, must be directly connected with the home-life
and ordinary activities of the learner.
Teaching in the rules of grammar should come at the
end of the study of language, not at the beginning.
Our first business is to learn how to talk, and how to
understand talk, in the above-mentioned sense. The
rules of grammar will enable us to test our attainments
in these two points.
Language is a connecting link between intuition and
thought proper: "Intuition and thought are separated
by a great gulf which can be bridged over only by
speech " {Swan's Song). All advanced and complex
thought is dependent on language, just as higher work
in number is dependent on algebraic symbols. The
three faculties of perception, language and thought
constitute the sum. of the means of intellectual educa-
tion. Pestalozzi's own words are : " The mind is de-
prived of its first instrument or organ, as it were, its
functions are interrupted, and its ideas confused, when
there is a want of perfect acquaintance and mastery of
at least one language. . . . The child cannot become
distinctly conscious of its intuitions and impressions of
Nature without language " (On Infants' Education).
The direct connection of intuition with the study of
language is seen in the fact that the naming of objects
gives us nouns ; the words which express the qualities
of objects are adjectives ; the words which express the
movements, etc., of things are verbs ; and so on for the
other parts of speech. We acquire, through language,
the ability to define the qualities of things ; and to make
changes in these — caused by change of conditions —
clear to ourselves, by changing the words themselves
and their arrangement. A proper system of teaching
LANGUAGE-TEACHING. 201
language will, without using any of the technical terms
of grammar, yet give all the facts of grammar through
developing intuitions of objects.
Pestalozzi's method was to take from the dictionary
the names of certain common things, and also those
words which described the most striking quaHties pos-
sessed by the things — nouns and adjectives — as a basis
for a lesson. His theory was that, in this way both in-
tuitions and language can be extended and strengthened
at the same time ; e.g., observation and expression (both
involved) will give : the eel is slippery, worm-shaped,
leather-skinned ; the evening is peaceful, cheerful, cool,
rainy ; the field is sandy, clayey, sowed, manured, fertile,
sterile. Or we can proceed from the adjectives as a
basis for calling up in the mind such things as give the
impressions associated with these words, thus: round
(given) — bullet, hat, moon, sun (recollected) ; light —
feather, down, air; high — towers, mountains, giants,
trees.
For such exercises in language Pestalozzi used both
objects and pictures. He says that these '' pictures are
selected with a view to present to the child's mind all
the chief varieties of objects and their properties, so far
as they fall within the reach of our five senses. As to
those properties which become known to us only by the
intervention of judgment and imagination, I exclude
them from my plan of instruction at this period. I am
aware that many words denoting such properties will
necessarily be caught up by children from the conversa-
tion of others, which may have the advantage of setting
their imagination to work and awakening their curiosity.
For the express purpose of our instruction, however, we
should confine ourselves to such objects as are im-
202 PESTALOZZI.
mediately perceptible by our senses, with a view to
bring the child as early as possible to a clear and pre-
cise expression, in language, of whatever may be the
result of his observations. . . .
"A few instances in each case are sufficient, and
the teacher may immediately proceed to the question :
* What else do you know that is round, or light ? ' etc.
The children generally find new examples within the
sphere of their own experience, and very frequently
such as the teacher would never have thought of; and
being repeatedly called upon to give an account of their
knowledge, they acquire a facility and a distinctness of
expression which no Socratic conversations, unless con-
ducted with a hundred-fold degree of skill and labour,
can ever produce " {How Gertrude Teaches).
To get enlargement of ideas and enlargement of
sentences, at the same time, Pestalozzi would elicit
from the children definitions and descriptions of objects
and actions ; e.g., " A hell is a hollow round vessel of cast
metal, open at the bottom, mostly with the brim bent
outwards; towards the top it grows more and more
narrow, approaching the oval shape ; it is generally
suspended free in the air, with an iron tongue hanging
down perpendicularly from the centre of the top, which,
when the bell is swung from one side to the other,
strikes against the brim of the vessel, and thus pro-
duces the sound which is called the ringing of the bell ;
To walk is to move on, step by step ; To stand is to rest
the body on the legs, in a perpendicular position ; To
lie is to rest the body on the ground, on the bed, etc., in
a horizontal, or nearly horizontal position," etc. Sen-
tences were also formally extended, on the basis of
real knowledge and through a particular word; e.g., " I
SPELLING AND READING. 203
shall ; I shall retain ; I shall not retain my health other-
wise ; I shall not retain my health after all I have
suffered during my illness otherwise ; I shall not retain
my health, after all I have suffered during my illness,
otherwise than by practising the greatest temperance ".
Such exercises, he held, should be instructive in them-
selves : suitable to the circumstances of the pupils : and
likely to arouse good feelings in the learner. They
should be so ordered and arranged that they help to
satisfy the child's natural longing for, and need of,
knowledge, in the best and most complete way.
It must be remembered, Pestalozzi points out, that
the above is a system for assisting Nature in her own
work and way. In actual order of life the child learns
through complete phrases, which at first only give him
a glimmer of meaning, but this becomes more and more
clear as time goes on. Words in a sentence help to
explain each other, when the general meaning of the
whole is, more or less, grasped. It is for this reason
that sentences are far more easily remembered than
detached words, which, of themselves, have no neces-
sary connection with others. We learn things as
wholes, in the first instance, and then analyse them
into parts so as to get greater clearness and fulness —
clear perceptions and distinct ideas.
Spelling and Reading. Sooner or later we must
begin to deal with the forms by which language is
symbolised, and must therefore fix upon a method.
Pestalozzi gives this account of the way in which he
arrived at his methods: "When I had begun to teach
reading, I found out, after a while, that my pupils
wanted first to be taught speaking; and when I set
about trying how I could accomplish this, I came at
204 PESTALOZZI.
last to the principle of following the progress of nature
in the composition of single sounds into words, and
words into speech. . . . When I attempted to teach
spelling I felt the want of an appropriate book for the
earliest childhood ; and I conceived the plan of one by
the aid of which I have no doubt that children, of three
or four years of age, might be brought to a degree of real
information far superior to that which is commonly
acquired at school about the age of seven or eight
years. . . .
" It is not to be left to chance at what time, and to
what extent, the child shall become acquainted with
each sound. An early and complete knowledge of them
all is of great importance. This knowledge he should
have before he is able to pronounce them ; and in like
manner he should be able to pronounce them, generally
with ease, before he be introduced to the knowledge of
written or printed characters, and taught to read.
" The spelling-book ought, therefore, to contain all
the sounds of the language, and these ought to be taught
in every family from the earliest infancy. The child
who learns his spelling-book ought to repeat them to the
infant in the cradle, before it is able to pronounce even
one of them, so that they may be deeply impressed
upon its mind by frequent repetition. It is incredible
to those who have not seen it, how much the attention
of babes is excited by the repetition of a few simple
sounds, and their combinations, such as : ba, ba, ba ;
da, da, da; ma, ma, ma; la, la, la, and so on. But the
charm which it has for them is not the only advantage,
for it contributes to the development of their faculties,
and prepares them for future greater exertions. . . ."
Again : " Mothers are invited to repeat those succes-
SPELLING. 205
sions of sounds to their children several times a day,
even before they are able to speak, and to vary the
order in w^hich they repeat them, so as to stimulate the
attention, and, by the contrast of the different sounds
with each other, to produce a distinct knowledge of the
peculiar character of each. This repetition is to be
renewed with double zeal when the children begin to
speak, that by imitating those sounds they may the
more readily develop their organs " (Hoio^ Gertrude
Teaches).
But all this must be based upon and preceded by
exercises in intuition. If this be forgotten the method
cannot be understood, and will appear to be the most
mechanical of mechanical systems. In this, as in all
else, Pestalozzi would have us go from experiences to
ideas, and from ideas to words, even when learning
spelling. To this end he says that "a firm conviction
gradually developed in me : (i) of the necessity of
picture books (intuitive books) for early childhood ; (2)
of the necessity of a fixed and precise exposition of these
books ; (3) of the necessity of a guide to the names and
word-knowledge based upon these books and their ex-
positions, with which the children should be made
familiar, long before the time for beginning to spell "
{How Gertrude Teaches). Talking must come before
spelling, and the child is to have nothing to do with
words, in the first instance, except in connection with
things. This is very clearly shown in the following
extracts.
** You see what objects God presents to your child as
soon as he opens his eyes ; you see the effect of his
involuntary and, so to say, inevitable intuitions ; you
see what pleases and amuses him, Let all your conduct
2o6 PESTALOZZI.
be guided by what you thus see ; take your child near
the object which catches his notice and attracts him
most strongly; show him his favourite objects again
and again ; search everywhere within reach — ^in the
garden, the house, the fields — for those things which,
by their colour, shape, movement, or brilliance, are
most like to those things he likes best. Surround his
table with them and place them on the table vv^here he
takes his meals. Give him plenty of time in which
to examine their qualities, at his ease; and let him
observe that by putting fresh flowers into the vase where
others have faded, by calling back the dog, or by pick-
ing up the fallen toy, you are often able to replace what
often disappears."
Again : " I wish always to let sense-impressions come
before the word, and definite knowledge before judg-
ment. I desire to make the effect of words and talk on
the mind of little account, and to secure that dominat-
ing influence proper to the actual impressions of phy-
sical objects, which forms such a notable protection
against mere babble and empty talk. I wish to lead my
child, from his earliest development, into the whole circle
of nature which surrounds him ; I would organise his
learning to talk by a collection of nature's products. . . .
''The next step to betaken is to make the child
pronounce those sounds, as distinct exercises, to be
gone through several times a day, but with the same
ease and playfulness with which children are generally
made to imitate sounds ; the only difference being that
the mother follows the regular course traced for her in
the spelling-book, instead of taking the sounds at ran-
dom as they occur " (How Gertrude Teaches).
Pestalozzi's spelling-book was built up on the plan of
READING. 207
combining (i) all the vowels with all the consonants, in
a progressive order, thus : ab, ad, af, ag, etc. ; then the
reverse order, ba, da, fa, ga, etc. ; so with eb, ed, etc.
(2) Next more difficult syllables are formed by putting
a consonant both before and after a vowel, thus : a, ap,
pap, lap, etc. " Each syllable spelt in this manner is
to be pronounced by the teacher and repeated by the
children, until it is indelibly impressed upon their
minds. After this the teacher asks for each letter
separately, and independently of the order in which they
stand (the first ? the third ? etc.), and, lastly, he covers
one syllable after the other with his hand, and makes
the children spell it from recollection." (3) When the
previous exercises are thoroughly mastered, the words
may be learnt, thus : f, fe, fen, fende, fender ; after-
wards in the reverse order : r, er, der, nder, ender, fen-
der. (4) "Another exercise is to divide the word into
syllables, which the children are to count, to spell, and
to pronounce, first in the order in which they stand, and
then promiscuously as the teacher points them out. . . .
" The exercises before mentioned being gone through
on the spelling-tablet, or otherwise, with the paste-
board letters, the book itself is to be put into the child's
hands as his first reading-book, and he is to continue in
it till he has attained perfect facility in reading all the
exercises." The pasteboard letters here referred to are
those used in teaching the letters. " In order to facili-
tate the knowledge of the written characters, which
ought to precede the exercise of spelling, I have ap-
pended to the spelling-book an alphabet, in which
the letters are of considerable size, so as to present
their differences to the eye in a more striking manner.
These letters are to be pasted, each separately, on stiif
208 PESTALOZZI.
paper, and given to the child one after another. The
vowels are in red ink, to distinguish them from the
consonants, and the latter are not to be taken in hand
until the child be perfectly familiar with the former"
(How Gertrude Teaches).
This brings the pupil to fitness for learning the
formation of sentences, i.e., " the determination of the
objects, their properties and different states, according
to time and other relations in which they are placed ".
And this gives us " the outline of a practical grammar,
by the progressive exercises of which the child is
brought to the ultimate object of instruction, viz., per-
fect clearness of ideas. The first step of this instruction
is to teach the child to speak correctly." The mother
is to give a model sentence and the child is to repeat it
after her until it is perfectly known. Sentences such
as : " Papa is kind ; the cow is tame ; the fir is tall,"
etc., are to be given, and when the child, says them
easily and correctly, the mother should then ask : " Who
else is kind ? " etc. '' What else is papa ? " etc. Fol-
lowing this would be such exercises as : '' Who or
what, are what ? — Roots are tough ; who or what, has
what ? — The dog has a fine scent ; Who or what, have
what ? — Plants have roots ; Who wishes what ? — The
hungry wishes to eat ; Who wish what ? — Children wish
to play ; Who can what ? (singular) — The bird can fly ;
Who can what ? (plural) — Tailors can stitch," and so
on.
" In this manner I continue these exercises, both in
the singular and the plural, through the whole round of
declensions and conjugations ; and, with special refer-
ence to the verb, I continue as follows. First I form
the simple connection between the verb and the object ;
READING. 209
e.g., attend to the teacher's words; breathe through your
lungs ; hind a sheaf, a stocking, etc. The next exercise
adds a subject to the verb ; e.g., attend : I attend to the
teacher's words, to my duty, to my welfare ; a person
who attends to things is attentive ; a person who does
not attend to anything, or only to a few things, is inatten-
tive ; I ought to attend to myself more than to anything
else " {How Gertrude Teaches).
Such exercises have two ends in view, viz., (i) to cul-
tivate the organs of speech (vocalisation, pronunciation),
and the art of speaking (oral composition); and (2)
teaching the formation of sentences (in the above-
mentioned sense). These two ends must always be
kept perfectly distinct and separate, and each must
be perfected by, and in, itself, even though the same
sentences may be used for both. As is said in the
Swan's Song : "To teach a child to talk we must first
cause him to see, hear and touch many things, and
especially those which please him, and to which, there-
fore, he will readily attend. We must also get him
to observe them in an orderly way, observing each
thoroughly before he goes on to another. At the same
time he must be continuously learning how to express
his impressions in words." Again : " I connected the
art of teaching children to talk with the intuitive-ideas
given to them by nature and by art " (How Gertrude
Teaches),
Pestalozzi's own way of doing this is described in his
account of how he taught the little boy — "then hardly
three years of age " — at Burgdorf. " I led him to form,
concerning every object, distinct notions, and to express
these notions clearly in language. Very soon I was
obliged to lay aside the alphabet, that first torment of
14
2IO PESTALOZZI.
youth. He felt no interest in those dead signs : he
would have nothing but things, or pictures of things :
and in a short time he was enabled to express himself
distinctly respecting any objects within the sphere of
his knowledge. He gathered general information from
the street, the garden, and the house ; and, upon the
basis of clear and self-acquired notions, he soon learned
to pronounce correctly even the most difficult names of
plants and animals. Nay, by comparing objects entirely
unknown to him, with such as he was acquainted with,
he was able to form of them a definite idea " {How
Gertrude Teaches).
In connection with this experiment he arrived at the
profound principle that ''nature brings the children,
even at this age, to a very definite consciousness of
numberless objects. It only needs that we should, with
psychological art, unite speech with this knowledge,
in order to bring it to a high degree of clearness ; and
thereby enable us to connect both the foundations of
many-sided arts and many-sided truths to that which
nature herself teaches ; and likewise to make use of
what nature teaches as a means for the explanation of
all the fundamentals of art and truth that one can bring
forward " {How Gertrude Teaches).
Also in connection with the teaching of spelling and
number, at Burgdorf during the same period, he began
to work out the great corner-stone idea for his whole
system, "The A B C of Anschauung". He says: "I
sought in every way to bring the beginnings of spelling
and reckoning to the greatest simplicity and method ;
so that, by the greatest psychological art, the child
might pass from the first step gradually to the second ;
and then without break, upon the foundation of the
REAL BASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING. 211
fully grasped second, quickly and safely he will be
carried on through the third and fourth. . . . With this
work the idea of the possibility of an * A B C of An-
schauung ' gradually unfolded itself" {How Gertrude
Teaches),
It is of the highest significance that what is ordinarily
regarded as the most mechanical and arbitrary of all
school subjects, i.e., spelling, should be one of the two
subjects which gave to Pestalozzi the suggestion of the
unifying and fundamental principle of his whole scheme
of education. To realise the full significance of this
fact is to grasp the essence of his theories : to miss it
is to misunderstand and mistake his whole work. There
is nothing in education, he would have us understand,
which cannot, and does not, begin in a real experience
on the part of the child — something which must, and
does, happen in the course of nature — and which, there-
fore, must be, as it alone can be, the starting-point of
true education.
Much scornful criticism has been passed upon the
mechanical nature of the exercises in spelling, etc., in
the Mother's Book : much of it fully deserved in so far
as Pestalozzi has carried his method to mechanical
extremes : but most of it mistaken in that it ignores
Pestalozzi's underlying assumption that it is all based
upon actual intuitions. As he himself so well says : " I
cannot prevent the forms of my method from having
the same fate as all other forms, which inevitably perish
in the hands of men who are neither desirous nor cap-
able of grasping their spirit ".
Such is the work of a mother; and Pestalozzi's
Mother's Manual and Guide for Teaching Spelling and
Reading are but skeleton outlines to which the mother
14 *
212 PESTALOZZI.
and the teacher mustiimpart flesh, blood and Hfe, so to
speak. Every mother, he says, is " able to give her
child the possession of a variety of names, simply by
bringing the objects themselves before the child, pro-
nouncing the names, and making the child repeat them.
She must feel herself able to bring such objects before
the child in a sort of natural order, the different parts,
for instance, of a fruit. Let no one despise these things
because they are little. . . . After she has exhausted
the stock of objects which presented themselves first,
after the child has acquired the names of them, and is
able to distinguish their parts, it may probably occur
to her that something more might still be said on every
one of these objects.
" She will find herself able to describe them to the
child with regard to form, size, colour, softness or hard-
ness of the outside, sound when touched, and so on.
She has now gained a material point ; from the mere
knowledge of the names of objects, she has led the
infant to a knowledge of their qualities and properties.
Nothing can be more natural for her than to go on and
compare different objects with regard to these qualities,
and the greater or smaller degree in which they belong
to the object. If the former exercises were adapted to
cultivate the memory, these are calculated to form the
observation and judgment.
"She may still go much further: she is able to tell
her child the reasons of things, and the causes of facts.
She is able to inform him of the origin, and the duration,
and the consequences of a variety of objects. The oc-
currences of every day, and of every hour, will furnish
her with materials for this sort of instruction. Its use
is evident : it teaches the child to inquire after the
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING. 21 3
causes, and accustoms it to think of the consequences
of things " {On Infants' Education).
The above will enable us to understand how Pestalozzi
arrives at his development of language teaching into
instruction in (i) sounds, (2) words, and (3) speech, as
mentioned above ; and how he goes on to subdivide the
third branch into (a) the designation of the form and
number of every object ; (b) the designation of all the
other properties of objects, whether they be discovered
by our senses, or by our imagination and judgment ; and
(c) the determination of the objects, their properties and
different states according to time and other relations in
which they are placed, with a view to still further illus-
trate all that the child has before learned concerning
the nature, powers of action, and so on, of each object.
This leads to the outline of a practical grammar.
Under the second of these subdivisions he includes a
very wide range of knowledge. He writes ; " I now
distinguish the treasures of language which are, as it
were, the testimony of past ages concerning the uni-
verse, under the following heads : (i) geography, (2)
history, (3) physical science, and (4) natural history.
But in order to avoid useless repetitions and to make
the course as short as possible, I subdivide these four
heads at once into about forty sections, and present to
the child the names of different objects only in these
subdivisions. I then take up the particular object of
our observation, man himself, and arrange the whole
of what language contains concerning him under the
following heads : (a) man as a merely physical or
animal being ; (b) man as a social, and still animal,
being ; and (c) man as a moral and intellectual being,
raised above the level of animal existence. These three
214 PESTALOZZI.
heads I again subdivide into about forty sections, com-
prehending all that is to be said about man" (How
Gertrude Teaches). But these elaborate subdivisions
were afterwards abandoned '' as the results of immature
opinions ".
In order to bring about a general system of education
on these Hnes Pestalozzi was convinced ''that intuitive
books for elementary instruction are indispensable ".
Again, he writes : " I saw, moreover, that in the com-
position of such books it must be of the highest impor-
tance to keep the different parts of instruction distinct
from one another, and to introduce them in a manner
adapted to the natural progress of the child's mind ; for
it is only by determining with the greatest accuracy
what is calculated for every age and every stage of
development, that we shall avoid either withholding
anything of which the child is capable, or burdening
and confounding him with things which he cannot yet
grasp. ... I was deeply impressed with the want of
' intuitive elementary books,' by the aid of which, long
before the spelling-book comes on, children might be
made acquainted with those objects of which they are to
learn the names, either by their being exhibited to them
in reality, or represented in good models and drawing."
Pestalozzi rightly laid the greatest possible emphasis
upon the importance of the beginnings of education.
In the light of his experiences at Stanz, he says :
" Never before had I so deeply felt the important bear-
ing which the first elements of every branch of know-
ledge have upon its complete outline ; and what
immense deficiencies in the final result of education
must arise from the confusion and imperfection of the
simplest beginnings " (How Gertrude Teaches),
DRAWING. 215
II. The Teaching of Form.
Language teaching, in all its forms, Pestalozzi calls
the first means of elementary instruction ; the teaching
of form, i.e., measuring, drawing and writing, he calls
the second means of instruction. The order in which
he places the three is what he would call the natural
order. He says : "In endeavouring to teach writing I
found that I must begin by teaching my children draw-
ing ; and, when I took this in hand, I saw that without
the art of measuring there is no drawing ". He con-
sidered that measuring enables a person to apprehend,
exactly and clearly, the outlines of objects; whilst
drawing gives the power correctly to represent the out-
line of objects.
He finds that the attempt to draw is one of the earliest
activities of the child. Just as the faculty for imitation
leads the child to language and music through the ear,
so it is led to drawing through the eye and hand.
" Children who show some curiosity in the objects
brought before their eyes, very soon begin to employ
their ingenuity and skill in copying what they have
seen. ... As soon as they are able to make the at-
tempt, there is nothing so well calculated for this object
as some elementary practice in drawing. . . .
"The general advantages resulting from an early
practice of drawing are evident to every one. . . . Even
in common life, a person who is in the habit of drawing,
especially from nature, will easily perceive many details
which are commonly overlooked, and form a much more
correct impression, even of such objects as he does not
stop to examine minutely, than one who has never been
taught to look upon what he sees with an intention to
2 [6 PESTALOZZI.
reproduce a likeness of it. The attention to the exact
shape of the whole, and the proportion of the parts,
which is necessary for the taking of an adequate sketch,
becomes a habit, and, in many cases, gives much in-
struction and amusement " {On Infants Education).
The following passages give an outline of his ideas
on, and method in, measuring and drawing. *' It is
obvious, but altogether overlooked in general, that
practical facility in measuring things ought to precede
every attempt at drawing ; or, at least, that we can draw
successfully only so far as we are capable of measuring.
The common mode of proceeding, on the contrary, is to
begin with an incorrect view and a crooked representa-
tion of the object ; to expunge and draw again, and to
repeat this tedious process until by degrees an instinc-
tive sort of feeling of the proportions is awakened. Then,
at length, we proceed to what we ought to begin with,
viz., measuring."
He says that this blind blundering into accuracy is
due to the fact that artists have thus groped in the dark
till they have acquired, *' by immense exertion and great
perseverance," the trick of it. They are unable to ex-
plain their method to their pupils, and so " art has re-
mained exclusively in the hands of a few privileged
individuals, who had talent and leisure sufficient to
pursue that circuitous road. And yet the art of drawing
ought to be a universal acquirement, for the simple
reason that the faculty is universally inherent in the
constitution of the human mind. . . . For let it be
remembered that a taste for measuring and drawing is
continuously manifesting itself in the child, without
any assistance of art, by a spontaneous impulse of
nature. . . .
DRAWING. 217
" In proposing, however, the art of drawing as a
general branch of education, it is not to be forgotten
that I consider it as a means of leading the child from
vague perceptions to clear ideas. To answer this pur-
pose it must not be separated from the art of measuring.
If the child be made to imitate objects, or images of
objects, before he has acquired a distinct view of their
proportions, his instruction in the art of drawing will fail
to produce upon his mental development that beneficial
influence which alone renders it worth learning."
It is significant to find that Pestalozzi is in agreement
with Ruskin as to the connection between drawing and
measuring. Criticising the teaching of drawing in
schools, Ruskin says : " The first error in that system
is the forbidding accuracy of measurement, and enforc-
ing the practice of guessing the size of objects. . . .
The student finishes his inaccurate drawing to the end,
and his mind is thus, during the whole process of his
work, accustomed to falseness of every contour. Such
a practice is not to be characterised as merely harmful,
it is ruinous " (Laws of F hole, preface).
To get the progress from vague perceptions to clear
ideas Pestalozzi insists upon the use of sense-im-
pressions. The child must draw from nature, since
''the impression which the object itself gives, is so
much more striking than its appearance in an imitation.
It gives the child much more pleasure to be able to
exercise his skill in attempting a likeness of what sur-
rounds him, and of what he is interested in, than in
labouring at a copy of what is but a copy itself, and has
less of life or interest in its appearance " {On Infants'
Education).
Unfortunately, however, Pestalozzi worked out a very
2l8 PESTALOZZI.
detailed course of preparatory exercises. He said that
it was unreasonable to expect that children should begin
drawing an object before they had learned the simple
elements of the laws of form, and the art of measuring.
The child was to learn the different sorts of lines and
angles, and the divisions of the square and circle. This
was to be carried on in close connection with drawing,
i.e.y so soon as the child is able to distinguish, and to
draw, horizontal, perpendicular and slanting lines, he is
to draw some object which is " bounded chiefly by these
lines ". The purpose of such preparatory exercises is
to teach the learner to judge accurately as to propor-
tions of length, breadth and size of the parts of an
object ; and to observe accurately the kinds of lines and
angles which make up its form : " Children must be
taught to read outlines like words, and to name the
separate parts of curves and angles with letters, so that
their combination can be as clearly expressed upon
paper as any word by the joining of letters " {How
Gertrude Teaches).
All this was unfortunate in that the mechanism of
the training became much too elaborate, and therefore
hindered and obstructed the higher development. So
far did it carry Pestalozzi and his assistants that an
A Iphabet of Form was invented by Buss. This, said Pes-
talozzi, " furnishes him [the pupil] with terms by means
of which he may clearly describe . . . comparing not
only the different dimensions of every object that oc-
curs to him, with each other, but also the whole outline
with the square, the circle, or their essential divisions
and modifications".
The figure given below shows the divisions of the
circle and the square, which give the alphabet of
WRITING. 219
forms. But the alphabet was never published, because
fuller investigation and experiment led to modified
views. Several courses of drawing were issued from
Pestalozzi's institute, of which the best— Dr. Biber says
— is that by Ramsauer.
Writing, which has to follow drawing, is to be taught
in two stages: "The first when the child is to learn
the formation and combination of letters with the [slate]
pencil merely ; and the second when he is to practise
his hand in the use of the pen. In the first course of
writing the letters are to be laid before the child ac-
cording to the precise measure of their proportions ;
and I have got a set of copies engraved, which, follow-
ing the successive steps of my method, will almost of
itself form a sufficient guide for the child in the practice
of writing. It has the following advantages : —
" (i) The child is kept a sufficient time at the draw-
ing of the elementary or fundamental lines of which the
different letters are composed. (2) These elementary
lines are put together according to a gradual progress,
220 PESTALOZZI.
in which the most difficult letters are placed at the
end, and their formation is moreover facilitated by the
previous practice of lessdifBcult combinations, to which
even the most complicated characters contain only
slight additions. (3) The exercise of combining differ-
ent letters with each other is introduced from the very
moment when the child is able to draw one correctly,
and is calculated upon the progress in the formation of
single letters, so as never to include any but those
which have become individually easy and familiar. (4)
The book admits of being cut up in single lines, so that
the child may place the copy immediately over the line
in which he intends writing.
" In this manner the child learns to write with ease
and perfection in the first course, and all that remains
to be done in the second is to teach him the use of the
pen. This is to be done by the same gradual process
which was followed on the slate ; the letters are to be
drawn with the pen on the same enlarged scale which
was adopted for the first attempt with the pencil, and
to be diminished, gradually, to the usual size " {How
Gertrude Teaches).
Pestalozzi gives us the reasons why writing should be
taught after measuring and drawing : (i) writing itself
is a sort of linear drawing, and that of stated forms,
from which no arbitrary or fanciful deviation is per-
mitted ; (2) the practice of writing, when acquired
previously to, and independently of, drawing, spoils the
hand and mars its freedom, by confining it to a few
peculiar forms on a contracted scale, instead of culti-
vating in it a general ability for all forms ; (3) by the
previous acquirement of drawing the formation of the
letters is greatly facilitated, and all that time is saved
WRITING. 221
which children generally spend in correcting bad habits,
contracted by a long practice of bad writing, and sub-
stituting a good hand for the mis-shaped and incorrect
characters to which they have been for years ac-
customed ; (4) the child should learn to do everything
in perfection from its beginning, which he will not be
able to do in writing unless this acquirement be built
upon an elementary course of drawing.
An aid used by Pestalozzi, in teaching writing, is
described by M, Fischer : " He gives out thin leaves of
transparent horn to each of his scholars. Upon these
tablets are engraved strokes and letters, and these
serve as models for the beginners, and the more easily
so since the pupils can themselves lay them upon the
figures they have drawn ; and, on account of their trans-
parency, can compare their correspondence with each
other."
While he thus shows very clear method and very
considerable ingenuity in teaching the mere mechanics
of writing, Pestalozzi does not omit to show how writ-
ing is related to other subjects through its subject
matter. Considered as form, he says, it is connected
with measuring and drawing ; but it is also a kind of
learning to talk : a peculiar and special exercise of this
art. Hence, so soon as the child has learnt to make
the letters and their combinations, " he needs no more
special copies for his improvement in writing. He has
the substance for these copies in his head, through his
skill in speech and orthography, and he builds up from
his own practical knowledge, on the lines of the spelling
and reading books, a collection of words through which
he constantly improves his speech-skill, and exercises
his memory and imagination " (How Gertrude Teaches).
222 PESTALOZZI.
In other words, writing includes composition. We
learn to write so that we may have another means of
expressing our thoughts. Learning to make letters is
not writing, but only getting possession of the means
for writing. The art will '' enable the children ... to
express themselves clearly about every possible thing,
whose form and substance may be made known to
them, whether by word of mouth or by writing ; and
firmly impress the knowledge of it. . . . Writing is [to
be] perfected not only as an art, but also as a profes-
sion " [e.g., the work of a literary man].
It is worth while to notice how modern views on the
teaching of writing are returning to the Pestalozzian
standpoint : writing being taught through drawing, and
in connection with composition. In one point Pesta-
lozzi was much in advance of the present method of
teaching penmanship, in that he taught the combination
of the letters already learned into syllables and words,
before mastering the writing of all the letters in the
alphabet.
III. Number Teaching.
In dealing with this subject Pestalozzi is at the very
opposite pole to that which marks what is usually
understood by the teaching of arithmetic. He did not
set out to teach his pupils how to do sums, but how to
understand numbers. On his plan the learner was
able to do sums, easily and accurately, because he
understood numbers ; on the other plan children learn
to do sums but may never understand numbers. His
pupils were able to discover the ordinary rules of arith-
metic from their study of the principles of numbers ;
pupils under the other system learnt the rules by rote
NUMBER TEACHING. 223
and worked the sums unintelligently. As a matter of
fact his pupils were the most acute and rapid of practi-
cal arithmeticians, amazing every one by their speed
and accuracy. He made no use whatever of figures
until his scholars knew the numbers themselves per-
fectly, up to ten ; and he taught no tables of weights
and measures, nor what may be called business arith-
methic, until the pupil had mastered the theory and art
of numbers, and then only such tables and calculations
as the scholar was likely to want in his future calling.
Number knowledge must, like all other knowledge,
start from, and develop through, sense-impressions.
Here is Pestalozzi's own theory of number : "This
science arises altogether out of the simple composition
and separation of units. Its fundamental formula is
this : ' one and one are two ' ; ' one from two leaves
one '. Any number, whatever be its name, is nothing
else but an abridgment of this elementary process of
counting. Now itis a matter of great importance, that
this ultimate bases of all number should not be ob-
scured in the mind by arithmetical symbols. The
science of numbers must be taught so that their primi-
tive constitution is deeply impressed on the mind, and
so as to give an intuitive knowledge of their real
properties and proportions, on which, as the ground-
work of all arithmetic, all further proficiency is to be
founded. If that be neglected, this first means of ac-
quiring clear notions will be degraded into a plaything
of the child's memory and imagination, and its object,
of course, entirely defeated.
"It cannot be otherwise. If, for instance, we learn
merely by rote 'three and four make seven,' and then
we build upon this ' seven,' as if we actually knew that
224 PESTALOZZI.
three and four make seven, we deceive ourselves ; we
have not a real apprehension of seven, because we are
not conscious of the physical fact, the actual sight of
which can alone give truth and reality to the hollow
sound. . . .
"The first impressions of numerical proportions
should be given to the child by exhibiting the variations
of more and less, in real objects placed before his view
... in which the ideas of one, two, three, etc., up to
ten, are distinctly and intuitively presented to his eyes.
I then call upon him to pick out in those tables the ob-
jects which occur in the number one, then those which
are double, triple, etc. After this I make him go over
the same numbers again on his fingers, or with beans,
pebbles, or any other objects which are at hand. . . .
" In this manner children are made perfectly familiar
with the elements of number : the intuitive knowledge
of them remains present to their minds while learning
the use of their symbols, the figures, in which they
must not be exercised before that point be fully secured.
The most important advantage gained by this proceed-
ing is that arithmetic is made a foundation of clear
ideas ; but, independently of this, it is almost incredible
how great a facility in the art of calculating the child
derives from intuitive knowledge. . . .
" A square [tablet] is put up, and the teacher asks :
* Are there many squares here ? ' Answer : ' No, there
is but one '. The teacher adds one, and asks again :
' One and one ; how many are they ? ' Answer : * One
and one are two ' ; and so on, adding at first by ones,
afterwards by twos, threes, etc.
" After the child has in this manner come to a full
understanding of the composition of units up to ten.
NUMBER TEACHING. 22$
and has learned to express himself with perfect ease,
the squares are again [used] in the same manner, but
the question is changed : ' If there are two squares,
how many times have we one square ? ' The child
looks, counts, and answers correctly : ' If there are two
squares, we have two times one square '.
"The child having thus distinctly and repeatedly
counted over the parts of each number up to ten, and
come to a clear view of the number of units contained
in each, the question is changed again, the squares
being still put up as before. ' Two : how many times
one is it ? Three : how many times one ? ' etc. ; and
again : ' How many times is one contained in two,
three ? ' etc. After the child has in this manner been
introduced to the simple elements of addition, multipli-
cation and division, and become conversant with their
nature by the repeated representation of the relations
which they express, in visible objects, subtraction is to
be exercised upon the same plan, as follows : the ten
squares being put up together, the teacher takes away
one of them, and asks : ' If I take one from ten, how
many remains ? ' The child counts, finds nine, and
answers : ' If you take one from ten, there remains
nine '. The teacher then takes away a second square,
and asks: * One less than nine: how many?' The
child counts again, finds eight, and answers : ' One
less than nine are eight ' ; and so on to the end.
" This exemplification of arithmetic is to be continued
in successive exercises, and in the manner before de-
scribed. For example : —
1 111111 etc.
1 111 111 111 etc.
1 1111 etc.
15
226 PESTALOZZI.
'* As soon as the addition of one series is gone through,
the subtraction is to be made at the same rate, thus :
having counted together one and two make three, and
two make five, and two make seven, and so on up to
twenty-one squares, the subtraction is made by taking
away two squares at a time, and asking : * Two from
twenty-one : how many are there left ? ' and so on.
"■ The child has thus learned to ascertain the increase
and diminution of number, when represented in real and
movable objects; the next step is to place the same
successions before him in arithmetical tables, on which
the numbers are represented by strokes or dots."
Such a training in real number will, Pestalozzi as-
serts, enable the child " to enter with the utmost facility
upon the common abridged modes of calculating by
figures. His mind is above confusion and trifling
guesswork; his arithmetic is a rational process, not
mere memory work, or mechanical routine ; it is the
result of a distinct and intuitive apprehension of
number, and the source of perfectly clear ideas in the
further pursuit of that science." As he says in another
place, his method " was to develop the internal power
of the child rather than to produce those results which,
nevertheless, were produced as the necessary conse-
quences of my proceedings. . . . The effect of my
method was to lay in the child a foundation of know-
ledge and further progress, such as it would be im-
possible to obtain by any other. . . .
" The increase and diminution of things is not confined
to the number of units ; it includes the division of units
into parts. This forms a new species of arithmetic, in
which we find every unit capable of division and sub-
division into an indefinite number of parts.
NUMBER TEACHING. 22/
" In the course before described, a stroke representing
the unit was made the intuitive basis of instruction ;
and it is now necessary, for the new species of calcula-
tion just mentioned, to find a figure which shall be
divisible to an indefinite extent and yet preserve its
character in all its parts, so that every one of them may
be considered as an independent unit, analogous to the
whole ; and that the child may have its fractional re-
lation to the whole as clearly before his eyes as the
relation of three to one, by three distinct strokes.
"The only figure adapted to this purpose is the
square. By means of it the diminution of each single
part, and the proportionate increase of the number of
parts by the continued division and subdivision of the
unit may be made as intuitively evident as the ascend-
ing scale of numbers by the addition or multiplication
of units. A fraction table has been drawn up [to show
this]. . . .
" Now as the alphabet of forms is chiefly founded
upon the division of the square into its parts, and the
fractional tables serve to illustrate the same division in
a variety of manners, the alphabet of forms, and that
of fractions, prove in the end the same ; and the child
is thus naturally led to connect in his mind the elements
of form with those of number, both explaining and
supporting each other. My method of arithmetic is
therefore essentially founded upon the alphabet of forms,
which was originally intended only for the purposes of
measuring and drawing.
*' By means of these fractional squares, the child
acquires such an intuitive knowledge of the real pro-
portions of the different fractions, that it is a very easy
task, afterwards, to introduce him to the usq qf figures
15*
228
PESTALOZZI.
for fractional calculation. Experience has proved, that
by my method they arrive at this part of arithmetic
from three to four years earlier than by the usual mode
of proceeding. And it may be said of this, as of the
former course, that it sets the child above confusion and
trifling guesswork ; his knov^ledge of fractions being
founded upon intuitive and clear ideas, which give him
both a desire for truth and the power of discovering and
realising it in his mind."
Throughout the teaching of number, Pestalozzi's aim
is to develop distinct ideas through grouping (addition
and multiplication), separating (subtraction and division),
and comparing (ideas of more and less) the objects — as
to their quantitative (number) elements — of perception.
When the ideas of the learner have been perfected
through number-teaching, then the learning of the or-
dinary arithmetical rules is but the application of his
trained ideas to the practical affairs of life ; and it will
be found that he is able to understand the problems and
discover the rules, in most cases, for himself.
Pestalozzi had three arithmetical tables which he
used in teaching number. We give sections of these
to show what they were.
I. Table of
Simple Unity.
II. Table of Simple
Fractions.
III. Table of Com-
pound Fractions.
I
I
I
n
n
n
in
lil
HI
□□'
mcamm
oamQii QUffla
m
a
NUMBER TEACHING. 229
In the Table of Simple Unity there were ten of each
number on a line ; so that on the last line there were
ten tens. The other numbers were put thus: IIII,
mil, mill, iiiiiii, iiiiiiii, iiiiiiiii,iiiiiiiiii.
The Table of Simple Fractions had ten squares in each
line, and ten lines ; the last line being ten squares
divided into tenths. The Table of Compound Fractions
also had ten lines and ten squares in each. In the
first line the unit was divided in halves, thirds, etc., to
tenths ; in the second line halves were divided into
their halves, thirds, etc, to tenths ; and in the last line
tenths were similarly divided.
In teaching units Pestalozzi did not confine himself to
the Table of Units, i.e., to visual sense-impressions. He
says that, when the pupils were familiar with this, he
"let them find the same relations on their fingers, or
with peas, stones, or other handy objects " {How Ger-
trude Teaches). After the four simple rules had been
mastered the learner was taken to fractions ; and not
until these were known was he allowed to apply his,
now complete, number knowledge to practical arith-
metic, i.e., sums concerning money, weights, measures,
etc.
Very full and detailed exercises were given for all the
numbers up to 100; and for all the small fractions.
These exercises had to be thoroughly mastered and
known, before what we now call concrete sums were
worked. Although the pupils were dealing with some
kinds of objects — diagrams, pictures and things — all
the time, yet the formal and mechanical elements were
largely present, and must have taken up much of the
time and energy of the teachers and learners.
CHAPTER XII.
PESTALOZZrS METHODS OF TEACHING VARIOUS
OTHER SUBJECTS.
Geography. In the Swan's Song Pestalozzi says that
the accurate observation of the different conditions of
water, at rest or in motion : its changing into dew,
rain, vapour, steam, hoar-frost, hail, etc. : and its ac-
tion on other objects of nature ; and the expressing of
the results of such observations in clear and fitting
language, give the beginnings of physical geography.
The pupil must first be taught to observe the country
around his own home ; not studying it through a map,
but by actually walking about the land itself. He
must learn to make a map — correcting any mistakes in
his first attempts from fuller and more accurate know-
ledge gained from later visits — before he is allowed to
see, much less to make use of, a school map. The
maps used in school teaching should be blank m.aps.
One of the Yverdon pupils. Professor Vulliemin, thus
describes the actual teaching in geography : " The first
elements of geography were taught us from the land
itself. We were taken to a narrow valley not far from
Yverdon, where the river Buroa runs. After taking a
general view of the valley, we were made to examine
the details, until we had obtained an exact and com-
plete idea of it. We were then told to take some clay,
230
GEOGRAPHY. 23 1
which lay in beds on one side of the valley, and fill the
baskets which we had brought for the purpose.
*' On our return to the castle, we took our places at
the long table, and reproduced in relief the valley we
had just studied, each one doing the part which had
been allotted to him. In the course of the next few
days more walks and more explorations, each day on
higher ground, and each time with a further extension
of our work. Only when our relief was finished were
we shown the map, which by this means we did not
see till we were in a condition to understand it."
From the very beginnings geography is to be cor-
related with the other sciences, such as natural history,
agriculture, geology, etc. ; not only because these are
directly connected with each other, but also because
greater and continuous interest is thus aroused.
Dr. Biber, after describing, in glowing terms, the
pre-eminent advantages of the surroundings at Yverdon,
for teaching geography to the pupils there, says: " He
taught them to watch the gathering up of the morning
mists, and the shadows of the early clouds, which
passing over the glittering lake hid for a moment, as
with a veil of gauze, its streams of undulating gold ; he
directed their eyes to the flaming characters with which
the sun writes the farewell of day on the traceless
surface of eternal snow ; he stood listening with them
to the majestic voice of nature, when the autumnal gale
howling on the floods, rolled billow after billow to the
bleak shore; he guided their steps to the mountain
caves from whose deep recesses the stately rivers drew
their inexhaustible supplies.
" Wherever he found a leaf in the mysterious book
of creation laid open, he gave it to them to read, and
232 PESTALOZZI.
thus, within the narrow sphere of their horizon, taught
them more of earth and earthborn beings, than they
could have learned by travelling, in the pages of a heavy
volume, all round the globe. This was indeed ' intui-
tive ' teaching, and experience proved that, independ-
ently of the moral effect which such an intercourse
with nature can never fail to produce, the reality and
vivacity of the ideas awakened in the children, concern-
ing the relations of the great elements to each other,
and to the beings whose existence they support, en-
sured a permanent and lively attention to whatever
ulterior instruction in the science of geography it was
deemed expedient to impart. . . .
"The simple features by which the hand of nature
has distinguished the different countries, were presented
to the mind long before the artificial mould into which
man has cast them. Physical and mathematical geo-
graphy, founded upon the ideas acquired by self-ob-
servation, formed the ground-work of this branch of the
method, and statistical facts were superadded at the
end, arranged in concise tables so as to facilitate their
recollection."
History. Pestalozzi held that it was unwise to at-
tempt to teach historical incidents, and their causes
and effects, to young children. Not only are children
unable and unfitted to judge of the doings and motives
of men and nations, but their moral and intellectual
progress is hindered and hampered by attempts to do
this, and by so early an acquaintance with the wicked-
ness and violence they have to learn about in the study
of history.
Dr. Biber says: "The historical lessons laboured
under still greater imperfections. Pestalozzi, from a
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. 233
sort of prejudice which he had conceived against his-
torical studies, gave but little encouragement to their
cultivation in the establishment, and accordingly their
treatment by the different teachers was, more than that
of any other branch of instruction, subject to endless
changes. One man read abstruse lectures ; another drew
up a set of synchronistical tables ; to some it seemed pre-
ferable to connect all history with biographical sketches,
while others indulged in lengthy discussions on the
different forms of government, and the best polity ;
some hurried over the whole of the records of human-
kind in a few months ; while others found their whole
set of pupils changed between their ante- and post-
diluvian lessons."
Science. It would not be too much to say that the
whole Pestalozzian system is based upon, and developed
through, science and the scientific method. There
remains, therefore, only the special work in science, as
such, to be considered. Here again Pestalozzi starts
with ultimate beginnings, so far as these are known and
useful for educational purposes. When, he says, a
child has learned to observe accurately and to express
correctly — in an elementary manner — what happens
when salt and sugar are dissolved in water : the change
from liquid to solid states : their crystallisation : the
fermentation of wine in the cellar : its turning sour and
becoming vinegar : the transformation of alabaster into
plaster, marble into lime, sand into glass, etc., he has
developed in himself the elementary scientific percepts,
and is likely to have a tendency towards further scientific
investigation.
Science teaching, he says, is chiefly (if not only) valu-
able— in the early stages of education — for developing
234 PESTALOZZI.
in the individual their powers of intuition and thought,
so that they may be enabled to judge wisely and act
independently in the affairs of life. It is through in-
tuitions (involving observations and perceptions) that
nature, and life, educate men from their first moment
to their last ; and, therefore, the educator must educate
in a like manner, or he will hinder rather than help a
man's development.
Hence Pestalozzi's efforts to find the very simplest
beginnings of knowledge (through intuitions), so that
the learner might obtain a method and a habit of judg-
ing, inquiring and classifying. " The simple question :
' What materials in the three natural kingdoms can man
use for his clothing ? ' gives an example of this. The
child will consider and examine, from this point of view,
many materials which he thinks may help him towards
finding the answer to this technological problem. By
such means he himself constructs the knowledge which
he is to obtain. Of course the necessary subject matter
must be made accessible to him in every possible way."
Of his actual methods we get some direct information
from one of his own pupils. De Guimps speaks of " our
mountain excursions. ... As soon as we got to the
high mountain pastures under the pines, we lost our
feeling of fatigue, and fell to playing games or collect-
ing herbs and minerals. ... On returning from these
excursions the pupils had to describe them, either orally
or in writing, according to their ages. There was gener-
ally a great deal to say, as our attention was always
carefully drawn to everything likely to prove instructive.
These excursions were, in fact, practical lessons in
natural history and geography."
Pestalozzi, in speaking of Kriisi, says: "In conse-
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. 235
quence of our gathering plants, during the summer, and
of the conversations to which this gave rise, he was
brought to the conviction that the whole round of
knowledge, to the acquisition of which our senses are
instrumental, depended on an attentive observation of
nature, and on a careful collection and preservation of
whatever she presents to our thirst for knowledge ".
In the institute the masters brought different objects
under the pupils' immediate observation, and, by careful
questioning, encouraged them to tell what they observed.
The objects generally taken were such as the pupils
brought home from their walks; but these were sup-
plemented by collections of minerals, plants, stuffed
animals, etc.
" Natural history and physical science were taught
entirely without plan, though, in some instances, in a
manner decidedly superior. The children were led to
observe and to examine for themselves such objects and
phenomena as were within reach ; and, to enlarge the
sphere of their knowledge, their teachers made excur-
sions with them in different directions through the
country. Sometimes they would all travel together, at
other times they were divided into several troops, which,
on their return home, communicated to each other the
results of their observations. In an establishment in
which there were no standing vacations, a few weeks
every year could well be devoted to such expeditions,
without encroaching on the time of their regular studies ;
and, in a country so eminent for the abundance and
variety of its natural productions, it was impossible
that the pupils should not, under the guidance of intel-
ligent teachers, acquire rich stores of real information.
The only objection that lay against the method pur-
236 PESTALOZZI.
sued in the institution on these subjects, was that the
pupils did not acquire a comprehensive view of the
sciences, but that their knowledge, being gathered as it
were upon casualties in the first instance, had a ten-
dency afterwards to remain fragmentary" (Dr. Biber).
In his Report to the Society of the Friends of Education,
written in 1800, while he was at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi
says : '* If the child knows simple bodies — air, earth,
water and fire — I show him the effects of these ele-
ments on bodies which he knows, and as he learns to
know the properties of several simple bodies, I demon-
strate to him the different effects obtained by uniting
one body to another; and lead him, always by the
simplest course of sense-impressions, to the boundaries
of the higher sciences ".
No one could be more opposed to the verbal method
in science-teaching, i.e., the lecture and text-book
methods. He says : " All science-teaching that is dic-
tated, explained and analysed by men who have not
learnt truly to think and speak in agreement with the
laws of nature : all science-teaching of which the
definitions are forced, as if by magic, into the minds
of children like a Dens ex Machina, or, rather, are
blown into their ears after the manner of a stage-
prompter — so far as it does go in — must necessarily
degrade into a miserable caricature of education.
" For where the fundamental powers of the human
mind are left unawakened ; and when words are
crowded upon the sleeping powers, we make dreamers,
who dream unreasonably and irregularly, in proportion
as the words, crammed into these unhappy open-
mouthed creatures, are big and pretentious. Such
scholars dream of anything in the world except that
MUSIC. 237
they are asleep and dreaming. ... I do not deny that
even such methods may turn out satisfactory tailors,
shoemakers, tradesmen and soldiers ; but I do deny
that they can produce a tailor or a tradesman who is a
man in the highest sense of the word."
Writing of his visit to Yverdon, in 1805, Froebel
says: "In natural history I heard only the botany.
The principal teacher, who also prepared the plan of
instruction for this subject throughout the school, was
Hopf, who was an active young man like the rest. The
curriculum arranged and carried out by him had in it
much that was excellent. In each individual case, e.g.,
the shape and position of leaves, flowers, etc, he would
first obtain all the possible varieties of form, by question
and answer between the class and himself, and then he
would pick out from the results the form which was
before them in nature. These lessons were in this way
made attractive."
Music. We have already seen the high value which
Pestalozzi attached to music as a moral influence.
Writing of it as a means of aesthetic development, he
says : " Nature has two principal and general means of
leading human activity towards the cultivation of the
arts, and these should be used, if not before, at least at
the same time as any particular means. They are
singing and the sense of the beautiful. The mother
lulls her child with song ; but here, as in all else, we
refuse to follow the law of nature. . . . Why has not
the progress of the arts during so many centuries
managed to find us what is necessary to carry on
these lullabies in after life ? Why has it not given us
a set of national songs capable of elevating the very
humblest souls, and passing from the simple cradle
238 PESTALOZZI.
melody to the sublime hymn of praise to God ? I am
incapable of supplying the want, alas ! I can only call
attention to it." There is something specially striking
in such views in one who '* could not even sing, though,
when unusually excited or elated, would hum to him-
self snatches of poetry ; not, however, with very much
tune".
At Burgdorf M. Buss was the teacher of music.
Ramsauer tells us that : " The thirty or forty children
of both sexes in Pestalozzi's old school came from the
town to the castle to take part in the singing. Buss
made his pupils sing as they walked, two by two,
holding each other's hand, up and down the big cor-
ridors of the castle. This was our greatest pleasure. . . .
Indeed singing was one of our chief sources of enjoy-
ment in the institute. We sang everywhere — out of
doors, during our walks, and, in the evening, in the court
of the castle ; and this collective singing contributed,
in no small degree, to the harmony and good feeling
which prevailed among us."
De Guimps, in describing the " mountain excursions "
from Yverdon, says : " We would sing gaily as we passed
through the villages, where the peasants often gave us
fruit. As soon as we got to the high mountain pastures
under the pines . . , we often assembled at some good
point of view to sing the wild, simple Alpine melodies
our masters loved to teach us. To-day, after more than
sixty years, I can recall those songs as vividly as in
those early days when I first sang them, and they still
seem very beautiful to me." In another place he tells
us that the Christmas Eve festivities were " interspersed
with joyous songs, in which the children always took
the greatest pleasure. Indeed, singing played a great
MUSIC. 239
part in Pestalozzi's institute, and was the joy of almost
every one in the house. There was singing everywhere
and always."
Dr. Biber speaks of "the cheerful songs with which
the youthful choir of Pestalozzi's pupils saluted the
rising sun, or the lovely breezes of returning spring
. . . the hymns of praise and thanksgiving, especially
reserved for solemn occasions ".
Two Swiss, Nageli and Pfeiffer, rendered great assist-
ance in this work by publishing some excellent collec-
tions of sweet and simple songs for children ; and training
the pupils in the institute on a definite and systematic
plan. This was quite a new feature in education, at
that time. The teaching was based upon a new musical
notation which had been invented by Rousseau, in 1741.
In this the movable Do is adopted, and the notes of the
scale are indicted by the numbers i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. i.
For the absolute pitch, as it is called, of the notes as
shown on the staff the old syllable letter names were re-
tained, viz.y ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si ; and C. D. E. F. G. A.
B. In effect, it anticipated all the essential principles of
the Tonic Sol-Fa method — indeed the Rev. John Curwen
testified that he was deeply indebted to it. for his system
— and has been greatly extended and improved by M.
Cheve. It is now much used in France, and is known
as the Cheve method. It is also known and used in
England.
The order of teaching was: (i) The first exercises
were entirely given to the time value of the notes ; the
crotchet being the unit, of which the minim was the
double, and so on for the longer notes : the quaver was
the half, and so on for the shorter notes. The rests were
taught in connection with the note whose place they
240 PESTALOZZI.
took. (2) Next the arrangement of notes in a bar: the
different "times" (common, triple, etc.)* subdivisions
of the lengths of notes by dotting, binding and group-
ing. In this the pupil was led, by questioning, to the
discovery of as much as possible. Both the first and
second steps concern rhythm, and, therefore, all the
exercises were on the same note, so that the pupil's
attention might be entirely confined to the time element.
Next is taken (3) ''melody," i.e., the ascending and
descending succession of notes. All the early exercises
are with notes of equal length ; in order that the atten-
tion may be given wholly to the tune element. At this
point the teacher is, by testing, to find out the vocal
capabilities of the child. Then comes (4) a study of
intervals, through the tetrachord, i.e., the succession of
four notes separated by a tone between the first and
second and the second and third, and a semitone
between the third and fourth ; which make up half
an octave. These exercises are notated thus: i. 2. i ..
2. 3. 2 .. 3. 4. 3 .. 4. I 4. 3. 4 .. 3. 2. 3 .. 2. I. 2 .. I.— in
which the double dots (..) stand for a pause, and the per-
pendicular stroke for a longer pause. After various exer-
cises on this interval — a second — there follow exercises
on the third, e.g., i. 2. 3. i. 3 .. 2. 3. 4. 2. 4. | 4. 3. 2. 4.
2 .. 3. 2. I. 3. I. etc. ; and so on with the other intervals.
When these have been mastered, the teacher is to sing
the same or similar intervals, and ask the pupils to tell
what he has sung. These exercises will train both
voice and ear.
The above exercises are carried on by means of this
diagram on the blackboard : —
MUSIC. 241
The teacher is to indicate with a pointer the various
successions to be sung : the four notes being called
I. 2. 3. 4.
The next step (5) consists in working with two tetra-
chords. In the first exercise the last note of the first
tetrachord becomes the first note of the second. Next
the second tetrachord is started one note higher than
the last note of the first tetrachord, e.g. —
(a) I. 2. 3. 4. (b) I. 2. 3. 4.
: : : I. 2. 3. 4. : : : : i, 2. 3. 4.
Now since the last interval in the tetrachord must be a
semitone, it will be seen that these exercises give us, in
connected form : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. yb and i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7-1.
Thus the learner is introduced to sharps and flats,
and the scales. This will easily be seen if we use the
ordinary letter names (absolute pitch), and extend the
exercises.
(a) C. D. E. F. (b)
F. G. A. Bb.
Bb C. D. Eb.
Eb F. G. Ab.
In connection with these exercises the staff is intro-
duced. At first all the exercises are written with the C
clef, because all the notes can be kept within the staff,
and the beginner is thus less likely to get confused.
Leger lines are introduced later on ; and the chro-
matic scale is evolved through the above exercises.
The pupils are thoroughly questioned on the differences
between the diatonic and the chromatic scales, until
the teacher is quite convinced that they have mastered
them.
16
C. D.
E. F.
G. A.
B. C.
D. E.
FjfG.
A. B.
C#D.
242 PESTALOZZI.
After this the pupil is to be taken through voice
culture, harmony and composition. But as all this is
beyond the elements, so far as young children are con-
cerned, we need not even give an outline of it. Suffi-
cient, it is hoped, has been said to give an idea of the
general method.
Manual Work and Physical Training. Of this Pes-
talozzi says : "In endeavouring to impart to the child
those practical abilities which every man stands in need
of, we ought to follow essentially the same progress as
in the communication of knowledge; beginning from
an alphabet of abilities, if I may so express myself:
that is to say, from the simplest practical exercises,
which, being combined with each other, would serve
to develop in the child a general fund of ability, to
be applied to whatever purpose circumstances might
render it necessary in after life.
" Such an alphabet, however, has not yet been
found, and that from the obvious reason that it has
not been sought for. I am not inclined to think that
it would be very difficult to discover it, especially if the
research were made with the same zeal with which
even the trivial abilities connected with the operation
of money-getting are attended to. If once discovered
it would be of essential benefit to mankind. It ought
to comprise the simplest performances of the bodily
organs of action, such as striking, carrying, throwing,
pushing, pulling, turning, twisting, swinging, etc. What-
ever manipulations may occur in any calling may be
reduced to some one or more of the simple actions and
their combinations. The alphabet of abilities should
therefore consist of a complete succession of them all,
arranged in the order in which they follow each other
MANUAL WORK. 243
practically, according to the structure of the human
body, and the greater or less pliability of its different
parts.
" Our popular education, of course, knows nothing
whatever of a succession of exercises which would lead
from those simplest performances to the highest de-
gree of bodily self-command, in which we might com-
bine them in a variety of ways ; and use our arms and
legs, now in parallel, and then in opposite directions.
. . . We have schools for spelling, for writing, for
learning the catechism, but we have no schools for
the education of human beings. . . .
** In cultivating our practical abilities we are obliged
to act ; whereas knowledge may be obtained in an almost
passive state : we need only open our eyes and our ears.
In this there is no exertion of the will, at least not so
far as to qualify the impression to be received ; the
character of which depends, on the contrary, on the
object of nature that is presented to our senses at the
time. But in the exercise of our abilities we are the
prime movers, the originators of the fact itself; we
determine and qualify the act which we intend to per-
form ; and though we are obliged to confine ourselves
within the limits which the law of our physical nature
has prescribed to us in our powers and organs of
action, yet we are not, as is the case in perception,
mainly dependent on outward objects.
" The same principles by which the development of
our practical abilities is regulated, ought also to preside
over their application. Whatever is calculated to lead
to a partial and merely fragmentary cultivation or use
of those abilities, which are essentially required to
satisfy the wants of human nature generally, and the
16*
244 PESTALOZZI.
claims of each peculiar calling and station, is contrary
to the true art of education ; because out of harmony
with that law of nature which enjoins upon us the
maintenance of harmony and equilibrium in our own
state, as well as in the different relationships of life in
which we are providentially placed. . . .
"The alphabet of abilities is intended to lay the
groundwork of future virtues, in the progress of our
moral education. Self-command over our physical
powers and movements is, as it were, the apprentice-
ship of virtue, in the bondage of which we are to be
kept, until the development of higher powers assigns to
our physical nature at once a subordinate position, and
a more elevated aim. Upon the attainment of practical
abilities positive rules are to be built ; in the same
manner as clear ideas upon distinct and comprehensive
intuitions ; and the former, as well as the latter, are to
be summed up in definitions. ... A neglect of the
practical abilities of life produces exactly the same effect
as the mistake of inculcating the doctrines of virtue and
of faith, before a practical feeling of either has been
produced in the mind."
De Guimps gives an account of the manual work and
physical training as carried on at Yverdon. " When
the weather permitted, some hours in the afternoon
were, every week, given to military exercises. The
pupils were formed into a regiment, with flag, drum,
band and arsenal ; and soon became skilful in the most
complicated manoeuvres. When they engaged in shoot-
ing, the non-commissioned officers were told off to make
the cartridges, under the directions of the chief in-
structor. From time to time they had sham fights in
some suitable place a few miles from the town. On
MANUAL WORK. 245
these occasions they started very early in the morning,
accompanied by a waggon in which were the provisions
and ammunition. Many parents and lookers-on often
joined the party; so that it was an exciting time for
the pupils. Sometimes, too, they practised target-shoot-
ing : the prize for which was an ewe with its lamb, and
the use of a little shed in the garden.
" Gymnastics, prisoner's base, and other games were
played regularly. . . . Manual labour had a place in
Pestalozzi's programme : it was often tried at the insti-
tute, but never kept up in a regular manner. The large
number of, and the diversity amongst, the pupils and
the occupations seemed to prove an insurmountable
difficulty. Gardening succeeded best of all. Some-
times the pupils had their own little plots to cultivate ;
and sometimes they were sent by turns, in twos and
threes, to work for a few hours under the directions of
a gardener. Some did fairly well at book-binding and
cardboard-work, in which they made the solids for the
study of geometry."
In the letter describing his experiences at Stanz
Pestalozzi says : '' I tried to connect study with manual
labour, the school with the workshop, and make one
thing of them. ... I am more than ever convinced
that as soon as we have educational establishments
connected with workshops, and carried on upon a truly
psychological basis, a generation will inevitably be pro-
duced which will prove to us by experience that our
present studies do not need a tenth part of the time or
trouble we now give to them."
Pestalozzi's purpose in manual work was, in the first
instance — as at Neuhof and Stanz — somewhat narrow
and likely to prejudice a child's future ; for it was de-
246 PESTALOZZI.
signed to teach him an occupation by which he would
earn his living. To do this before the pupil had shown
what special abilities, inclinations and opportunities
he might have, was likely to dwarf his development and
sacrifice his social usefulness. He seems to have re-
alised this, and based his theory on the point of view
contained in this question : *' What are the means of
developing in the child those practical abilities which
the ultimate purpose of his existence, as well as the
changeable positions and relations of life will, or may,
require of him ; and cultivating them to such a degree
of perfection, that the fulfilment of his duties will be to
him, not only possible or easy, but in reality a second
nature."
Latin. A very interesting account of the application
of his principles, by Pestalozzi himself, to the teaching of
Latin, is given by De Guimps. ^' He considered the best
means of teaching a foreign language to be that which
nature employs in teaching a child to speak its mother-
tongue, viz., constant practice in the spoken language.
It was thus that, with the addition of a little grammar,
the Germans learned French, and the French learned
German, most successfully, at Yverdon. Pestalozzi,
thereupon, asked himself if it would not be possible to
use the like means for teaching a dead language, and
he resolved to try the experiment."
So, when sufficiently recovered from a painful illness
to lie on the sofa, he caused '' some six or seven children
who had not yet begun Latin, amongst them the writer
of these lines, [to be] brought to his couch every day.
[He] had with much care selected from Ccesar's Com-
mentaries a number of short passages and detached
phrases, all bearing on the same subject, and nearly all
LATIN. 247
containing the same words ; with these selections he
had, in his illegible hand, covered several sheets. As
we stood by the couch, where he lay weak and suffering,
he would give us a phrase which we all had to repeat
until we knew it by heart. He would then explain the
different words, and point out some of the changes
which they undergo when it is required to modify the
sense of the sentence.
" In this way the study of syntax and accidence went
on hand in hand. We were soon able to make certain
changes for ourselves, and to construct sentences of such
elements as were known to us ; that is to say, with a
very limited vocabulary, and a very narrow range of
topics, we spoke Latin like Caesar. These lessons were
continued during the whole period of the old man's con-
valescence."
Pestalozzi, in his Swans Song, asserts that " A child
soon learns to speak a foreign language even from an
illiterate person, who merely talks to him without any
attempt at instruction ; but he does not do this with a
skilful teacher who adopts the mechanical grammatical
method ".
Dr. Mayo gives this account of Pestalozzi's plan :
'* He does not begin with definitions, because a child
never comprehends them ; but, first calling up the idea
in the child's mind by conversing with him, he gives
him the simple sentence : Leo est animal. Here the
words leo and animal being, one almost the same the
other just the same as, those which express the same
idea in English, they readily enter the child's mind.
From this he proceeds to : An apis is what ? An
animal, says the child, using the word he had learnt
just before. Proceeding in this manner he stocks the
248 PESTALOZZI.
child's mind with words, before he enters on the in-
flections of those words — always endeavouring to link
what the child has next to learn with what he has
already acquired.
" In the declensions he does not propose to the
child : Musa, a muse ; musce, of a muse ; words which
cannot interest the child, because they represent only
parts of ideas. He involves the important word in
sentences, e.g., Rosa est flos ; Rosce odor est sttavis, etc.,
through all the cases. The child having learnt the
inflection of Rosa has a similar word proposed to him,
also enveloped in little sentences, but he is now re-
quired to find the terminations. In teaching syntax he
gives examples which lead the child to find the rule ;
and then makes it apply the rule, in the same way as
in the declensions.
*' The advantages of this method are briefly these:
you do not disgust the child in his first intellectual
exertions ; you exercise other faculties besides memory ;
you enrich his mind with a great number of ideas ; and
you furnish him with a copia verborium before you set
him down to translate a classical author, or to express
his own ideas in a connected chain in the language."
Pestalozzi points out that whilst some are ready
to admit — because they cannot help doing so — that
modern languages may be learned in this way, yet
they most strongly maintain that the orthodox method
of teaching the dead languages has proved, by its
successful results, to be sound, and that it is really
based on a firm and psychological foundation as to its
advanced stages. While he admits the latter claim — as
to the advanced stages — he affirms that the old method
of teaching the rudiments of the classics is, both from
TEACHING OF MORALS. 249
the psychological standpoint and in regard to the
memory element, unnatural and inefficient.
He holds that the study of language, properly carried
out, forms the connecting link between the faculty of
sense-perception and the faculty of thought. The
three faculties, perception, language and thought, are
the whole means of intellectual education. For these
reasons the study of foreign languages should be in
complete agreement with that of the mother-tongue.
Good practical proof of the truth of this, says Pesta-
lozzi, is found in the fact that uneducated foreign nurse-
maids are able successfully to teach their own language
to little children by following this natural method ;
and that foreigners soon pick up the language of a
country by the like method.
Pestalozzi seems to have taken up the question of
the teaching of the dead languages with all his ardent
and intense enthusiasm. Dr. Mayo sa3/s : " Pestalozzi
is mad about the application of his system to the
classics ... as he had a clever little German to aid
him he may throw some light on this most difficult
branch ".
Teaching of Morals. Positive morality was, like
other things, to be taught through facts and acts not
words. " Gliilphi was deeply impressed with the truth
that education is not imparted by words but by facts.
For kindling the flame of love and devotion in their
souls, he trusted not to the hearing and learning by
heart of passages setting forth the beauties of love and
its blessings ; but he endeavoured to manifest to them
a spirit of genuine charity, and to encourage them to
the practice of it both by example and precept. He led
them to live in love. . . . If there was any one ill in the
250 PESTALOZZI.
house of any of the children, were it father or mother,
or brother or sister, or even the meanest servant, he
never failed to ask the child, the moment he entered
the school-room, how the invalid did, and the child had
to give him a detailed and accurate account. . . .
" The children were asked likewise, whether they had
spoken themselves to the invalid, and whether they
had contributed to alleviate his sufferings, if it were
only by avoiding every noise and bustle in the house.
Of the older children, Gliilphi inquired whether they
sat up with their sick, and how long they could bear
it ; and he testified to them his approbation when he
found they did so willingly. ... It was in this spirit
he taught faith and love practically ; and the children
showed that they understood his instruction, more
frequently by tears of emotion, or by a significant si-
lence, than by clever answers to catechetical questions
on the respective doctrines " (Leonard and Gertrude).
Of the moral education of the children at Stanz he
writes : ** My one aim was to make their new life in
common, and their new powers, awaken a feeling of
brotherhood amongst the children, and make them
affectionate, just and considerate. I reached this end
without much difficulty. Amongst these seventy wild
beggar-children there soon existed such peace, friend-
ship and cordial relations as are rare even between
actual brothers and sisters." This he did by the
example of his own behaviour to them, and by giving
them opportunities for behaving similarly to others.
This touching incident is related by him : —
''When the neighbouring town of Altdorf was burnt
down, I gathered the children round me, and said,
' Altdorf has been burnt down ; perhaps, at this very
TEACHING OF MORALS. 25 1
moment, there are a hundred children there without
home, food or clothes ; will you not ask our good
Government to let twenty of them come and live with
us ? ' I still seem to see the emotion with which they
answered, ' Oh, yes, yes ! ' ' But, my children,' I said,
' think well of what you are asking ! Even now we
have scarcely money enough ; and it is not at all certain
that if these poor children came to us, the Government
would give us any more than they do at present, so
that you might have to work harder, and share your
clothes with these children, and sometimes, perhaps,
go without food. Do not say, then, that you would
like them to come unless you are quite prepared for all
these consequences.' After having spoken to them in
this way as seriously as I could, I made them repeat all
I had said, to be quite sure that they had thoroughly
understood what the consequences of their request
would be. But they were not the least shaken in their
decision, and all repeated, ' Yes, yes, we are quite ready
to work harder, eat less, and share our clothes, for we
want them to come '."
Pestalozzi then reveals — quite unconsciously, ap-
parently— one of his deep insights into the possibilities
of human education. He writes: "I followed up this
awakening of the sentiments by exercises intended to
teach the children self-control, and interest the best
natures amongst them in the practical questions of
everyday life. It will easily be understood, in this re-
spect, it was not possible to organise any system of
discipline for the establishment ; that could only come
slowly, as the general work developed. . . . One young
girl, for instance, who had been little better than a
savage, by keeping her head and body upright, and not
252 PESTALOZZI.
looking about, made more progress in her moral educa-
tion than any one would have believed possible. These
experiences have shown me that the mere habit of
carrying oneself well does much more for the education
of the moral sentiments than any amount of telling and
lecturing in which this simple fact is ignored." This
interaction of mind on body, and body on mind, as a
means of development is one of the greatest truths of
scientific education.
True to his theory that all knowledge comes through
language, form and number, Pestalozzi uses language
as a means of moral education. He holds that percep-
tion in the intellectual world is associated with language,
in the same way as sense-perception in the physical
world depends on external objects (nature). Therefore,
in the teaching of grammar through sentence-making,
etc., the examples should be in harmony with the cir-
cumstances of the learner, and should convey inspiring
moral sentiments to the child's mind.
This idea he worked out, with some detail, in The
Natural Schoolmaster : a Father s Lessons on the Custo-
mary use of Words, a legacy from Father Pestalozzi to his
pupils, written some time between 1802 and 1805, and
first published in 1829. In this book he uses words as
the texts for short moral exhortations. Thus: ''achten,
achtend, geachtet, erachten, beobachten, hoehachten,
verachten, sich selbstachten ; die Achtung, die Selb-
stachtung. Children ! the first word I am going to
explain to you is Selbstachtung (self-attention, self-re-
spect). This it is which makes you blush when you
have done wrong: which causes you to love virtue,
pray to God, believe in everlasting life, and overcome
sin. This it is that makes you honour old age and
TEACHING OF MORALS. 253
wisdom, and prevents you turning aside from poverty
and distress : enables you to resist error and falsehood :
and teaches you to love the truth. Children ! this it is
that makes the coward a hero : the idler a worker ; and
causes us to respect the stranger, and go to the rescue
of the outcast and fallen."
In a letter to Gessner, quoted by Kriisi in his
preface to the work, Pestalozzi writes: "I hope to
complete my reading lessons by a legacy to my pupils,
in which, after my death, they will find, connected
with the principal verbs in the language, and ex-
pressed in such a manner as to strike them as they
struck me, a certain number of moral instructions, all
drawn from my own experience ". Here are some
examples : —
" Breathing,
" On thy breath hangs thy life, O man ! When thou
breathest wrath and vengeance, and convertest the pure
air of heaven into poison within thy lungs, what else
doest thou but hasten the day when thou shalt be
breathless, and the oppressed and afflicted shall be
delivered from the fury of thine anger ?
" Thinking,
"Thinking leads man to knowledge. He may see
and hear, and read and learn whatever he please, and
as much as he please : he will never know any of it,
except that which he has thought over, that which by
thinking he has made the property of his mind. Is it
then saying too much, if I say, that man by thinking,
only becomes truly man. Take away thought from
man's life, and what remains ?
254 PESTALOZZI.
' ' Hoping.
" Hoping and waiting make many a fool. And are
we, then, not to hope at all ? How unhappy would
man be without that beam of hope, which in suffering
and sorrow sheds light through the darkness of his soul.
But his hope must be intelligent. He must not hope
where there is no hope. He must look at the past Vv^ith
a steady eye, in order to know what he may hope of the
future."
*' Threatening.
" It is a misfortune if one man threaten another.
Either he is corrupt who does it, or he who requires it-
' ' Failing.
"All men fail, and manifold are their failings.
Nothing is perfect under the sun. But, unless a man
despise himself, he will not think lightly of any of his
failings.
"Almsgiving.
" The best alms is that which enables the receiver to
cease from begging.
" Changing.
" Change, my child, change all that thou doest and
performest, until thou have perfected it, and thou be
fully satisfied with it. Change not thyself, however,
like a weathercock with every wind ; but change thy-
self so that thou mayest become better and nobler,
and that all that thou doest may be ever more perfect
and excellent. No such change will ever cause thee
to repent."
While such a means of teaching morals has much
TEACHING OF MORALS. 255
that is suggestive, and some points that are sound, it
is — to say the least — somewhat forced and fanciful.
Here, as elsewhere, Pestalozzi has let his method run
away with him.
One point urged by Pestalozzi is very striking and
important, viz., that a mother must expect, sympathise
with, and help towards her child's independence of
herself. He says: "In the progress of time the child
not only is daily exercising and strengthening its phy-
sical faculties, but it begins also to feel intellectually
and morally independent. From observation and
memory there is only one step to reflection. Though
imperfect, yet this operation is frequently found among
the early exercises of the infant mind. The power-
ful stimulus of inquisitiveness prompts to exertions,
which, if successful, or encouraged by others, will lead
to a habit of thought. . . . The child, then, begins to
judge for himself, not of things only, but also of men :
he acquires an idea of character : he grows, more and
more, morally independent'' (On Infants' Education).
CHAPTER XIII.
PESTALOZZrS GENERAL METHODS AND VIEWS.
The School Atmosphere. The school is not to be a
mere learning-shop, where it is the child's work to get
through certain tasks, and the teacher's business to see
that he does it. The school is to be the home, with a
difference. There must be the loving relation of parent
to child ; and there must be, as far as possible, the
same opportunities of using the ordinary actions and
objects of daily life as means of development and in-
struction.
At the Burgdorf institution a visitor exclaimed : " Why,
this is not a school: it is a family!" Pestalozzi
said: "That is the highest praise you can give me.
I have succeeded, thank God, in showing the world
that there must be no gulf between the home and the
school ; and that the latter is only helpful to education
in so far as it develops the feelings and virtues which
give the charm and worth to family life."
When Gliilphi asks Gertrude, in Leonard and Ger-
trude, whether she thought it would be possible to
introduce into a regular school the same methods that
she followed at home with her own children, she re-
plies : " I am not sure, although I am inclined to think
that what is possible with ten children would be possible
with forty. But it would be difficult to find a school-
256
Johann Heinrich Meyer, 1812.
Pestalozzi.
An allegorical picture; Pestalozzi is in his room at the Castle, yet the Castle is in
the scene through the window.
From a transparency in the possession oj Miss Mayo.
SCHOOL ATMOSPHERE. 257
master who would allow such arrangements in his
school."
Gertrude's home education method is thus described :
All the children, immediately after breakfast, helped to
wash the dishes, and then seated themselves at their
spinning. First they sang their morning hymn, and
then Gertrude read aloud a chapter from the Bible,
the children repeating it after her, while going on with
their spinning. Any particularly instructive passage
was repeated until it was known by heart. The eldest
daughter was, meantime, engaged in making the chil-
dren's beds in the next room, but she also said (to
herself) what the others were saying. When she had
finished the bed she went to the garden and fetched the
vegetables for the day's dinner. While cleaning these
she continued to repeat verses from the Bible.
Whenever Gertrude saw that the children were in
any difficulty with their wheels or cotton, she would go
to them and put matters right. The younger children,
being unable to spin, were set to pick over the cotton
for carding, and this they did with great skill. Ger-
trude's chief desire was to train the children in their
work : to make them skilful and good at it.
She was in no hurry to teach them to read and write.
It was necessary, she said, to teach them to speak be-
fore teaching reading or writing, for these *' are only an
artificial sort of speech ". To get them to speak well
she made them pronounce syllables after her in regular
succession. These syllables she got from an old ABC
book. But her chief concern in this sort of education
was to make the children observe things. She did not
say to a child: "This is your head: this your nose:
this your hand; this your finger". Nor did she ask:
17
258 PESTALOZZI.
"Which is your eye: your ear?" But she would
say : '* Come here, my child, I will wash your little
hands: I will comb your hair: I will cut your finger-
nails ". In this way the children learned to name
these parts of their body in the course of their ordi-
nary dealings with them : there was no mere verbal
instruction.
The result was that the children were skilful and
intelligent ; and able to do all such things that children
of their age should. To educate them in number-work
she taught them to count the number of steps they took
to go from one end of the room to the other ; and she
made use of two rows of window panes (each row having
five panes in it) to explain the decimal relations of
numbers. They also counted their threads, and the
number of turns on a reel. She taught them to ob-
serve, intelligently and accurately, many common ob-
jects and the forces of nature.
That Pestalozzi fully believed in the possibility of
transferring the spirit of home-education to the school
is clearly shown by his statement concerning his work
at Stanz: *' I wanted to prove by my experiment that
if public education is to have any real value, it must
imitate the methods which make the merit of domestic
education ". In fact he accepted the work with a view
to prove that his ideas were practicable. In the letter
about his work at Stanz he writes: *'As I have ex-
plained my plan for the public education of the poor in
the third and fourth parts of Leonard and Gertrude, I
need not repeat it here. I submitted it to the Director
Stapfer, with all the enthusiasm of a man who felt that
his hopes were about to be realised ; and he encouraged
me with an earnestness which showed how thoroughly
SCHOOL ATMOSPHERE. 259
he understood the needs of popular education. It was
the same with Minister Rengger."
His criticism on the atmosphere of the common
school of his day is very searching and severe: "Our
unpsychological schools are in essence merely artificial
sterilising machines, for destroying all the results of
the power and experience that nature herself calls to
life in children. . . .
" We leave children, up to their fifth year, in the full
enjoyment of nature ; we allow every impression of
nature to influence them : the}^ feel the power of these :
they learn to know full well the joy of unhampered
freedom and all its delights. The free natural bent
which the happy, untamed, sensuous being derives from
his development, has already taken in them its most
definite direction.
" And, after they have enjoyed this happiness of
sensuous life for five full years, we cut them off from all
their natural surroundings : tyrannically bring to an
end the delightful course of their unhampered freedom :
pen them up like sheep, whole herds huddled together
in stifling rooms : pitilessly chain them for hours, days,
weeks, months, years, to the study of unattractive and
wearisome letters: and, compared with their former
condition, tie them to a maddening course of life " {How
Gertrude Teaches).
While the intellectual atmosphere is to be quickening
and natural ; the moral atmosphere must, first and last,
be grounded in and permeated by love. Love was the
key that unlocked the hearts of Glulphi's pupils, and
opened to him the high road to success. " His com-
passion and his love brought the eminent qualities
which he possessed for the office of a schoolmaster
17 *
26o PESTALOZZI.
into full play, and made him a very different man from
what he had been at first. He now saw that it was on
these tender feelings that all the influence of Gertrude
in her domestic circle rested, and when he recalled to
his mind the image of maternal kindness and faithful-
ness which he had from the beginning chosen for his
model, he remembered at once the beautiful words of
the Psalmist : ' Like as a father pitieth his children, so
the Lord pitieth them that fear Him '. And he said to
himself: ' as the Lord pitieth them that fear Him, so
ought I to pity the children of this village, if I truly
love them, and mean to be their schoolmaster '.
'' Gertrude and Gliilphi did, from morning to night,
all in their power to retain the confidence and affection
of the children. They were constantly assisting them
with kindness and forbearance. They knew that con-
fidence can only be obtained by a union of power and
love, and by deeds which claim gratitude in every human
breast ; and, accordingly, they endeavoured daily still
farther to attach the hearts of the children to them-
selves, by conferring upon them numberless obligations,
in a spirit of active charity" (Leonard and Gertrude).
Writing of his work at Stanz, Pestalozzi remarks :
" Before all things I was bound to gain the confidence
and the love of the children. I was sure that if I suc-
ceeded in this all the rest would come of itself. . . .
These children gradually became attached to me ; some
indeed so deeply that they contradicted their parents
and friends when they heard them say evil things about
me. They felt that I was not being treated fairly, and
loved me, I believe, the more because of this."
Near the end of his life he writes : " Maternal love
is the most powerful agent, and affection is the primi-
TEACHERS' QUALIFICATIONS. 26 1
tive motive in education " {On Infants Education).
'*The natural means for early education are to be
sought in the enlightened love, faith and tenderness of
parents — made wise by a knowledge of all the conquests
humanity has accomplished " {Swan's Song).
Qualifications of a Teacher. The schoolmaster him-
self must '' at least be an openhearted, cheerful, affec-
tionate and kind man, who would be as a father to the
children ; a man made on purpose to open children's
hearts and their mouths, and to draw forth their under-
standings as it were from the hindermost corner. In
most schools, however, it is just the contrary ; the
schoolmaster seems as if he were made on purpose to
shut up children's mouths and hearts, and to bury their
good understandings ever so deep underground. That
is the reason why healthy and cheerful children, whose
hearts are full of joy and gladness, hardly ever like
school " (Christopher and Eliza).
Pestalozzi, in How Gertrude Teaches, says : " I finish
describing ; otherwise I shall come to the picture of
the greater number of schoolmasters, of whom there are
thousands to-day who have — solely on account of their
unfitness to earn a respectable livelihood in any other
way — subjected themselves to the laboriousness of this
occupation ; and they, in accordance with their unsuit-
ability for anything better, look upon their work as
leading to nothing further, but sufficient to keep them
from starvation ". In another place he says of Kriisi
that, when he first began to teach, ''he knew no art
of school-keeping other than that of setting tasks in
spelling, reading, and learning by heart : repeating
lessons by turns : warning and chastising with the rod,
when the tasks were not known ".
262 PESTALOZZI.
It is the first duty of the teacher, as such, to be
interested and interesting. '* Interest in study is the
first thing which a teacher . . . should endeavour to
excite and keep aHve. There are scarcely any circum-
stances in which a want of application in the children
does not proceed from a want of interest ; and there are
perhaps none, under which a want of interest does not
originate in the method of treatment adopted by the
teacher. I would go so far as to lay it down as a rule,
that whenever children are inattentive, and apparently
take no interest in a lesson, the teacher should always
first look to himself for the reason. . . .
" There is a most remarkable reciprocal action be-
tween the interest which the teacher takes, and that
which he communicates to his pupils. If he has not
his whole mind absorbed in the subject ; if he does not
care whether it is understood or not, whether his
manner is liked or not, he will never fail to alienate
the affections of his pupils, and render them indifferent
to what he says. But real interest taken in the task
of instruction — kind words, and kinder feelings — the
very expression of the features, and the glance of the
eye — are never lost upon children " {On Infants Educa-
tion).
Of general knowledge, and training for teaching,
Pestalozzi appears to think that the teacher — in the
broadest sense of the term — has little, if any, need, so
long as he is guided by those who have the proper
qualifications. The reasons for this view are given in
various parts of his writings : of which some typical
passages are here given.
'* Some of my children developed so well that I found
that they were able to do some of the work that I did.
teachers' qualifications. 263
As soon as we have educational institutions combined
with workshops, and conducted on truly psychological
principles, we shall, I am thoroughly convinced, inevit-
ably form a generation which will prove to us that our
present studies require only about a tenth of the time
and trouble we now give to them ; and that the time and
trouble which will be demanded can be made to fit in
so entirely with the facts of domestic life, that every
parent will be able to give them, with the aid of one
of the family or a friend. Such a state of things will
daily become more easy, in proportion as the method of
instruction is made more simple, and the number of
educated people increased " (Letter about Stanz).
Pestalozzi says that he convinced Kriisi of "the
possibility of establishing such a method of instruc-
tion as he felt was most needed, viz., one which would
cause all the branches of knowledge to bear upon one
another with such coherence and consistency as would
require, on the part of the master, nothing but a
knowledge of the mode of applying it, and, with that
knowledge, would enable him to obtain not only for his
children, but even for himself, all that is considered to
be the object of instruction. That is to say, he saw
that with this method positive learning might be dis-
pensed with, and that nothing was wanted but sound
common sense, and practical ability in teaching, in
order not only to lead the minds of children to the
acquirement of solid information, but likewise to bring
parents and teachers to a satisfactory degree of inde-
pendence and unfettered mental activity concerning
those branches of knowledge in which they would
submit themselves to the course prescribed by the
method " (How Gertrude Teaches).
264 PESTALOZZI.
M. Tobler says of Pestalozzi's efforts at simplifica-
tion of method : " In trying the details of his method
he never leaves any single exercise until he has so far
investigated and simplified it, that it seems impossible
to advance any farther. ... I became more and more
convinced that it was possible to accomplish what I
have before stated to have been the leading object of
my own pursuits at a previous period, viz., to re-
educate mothers for the fulfilment of that sacred task
assigned to them by nature, the result of which would
be that even the first instruction imparted in schools,
would have previous maternal tuition for a foundation
to rest upon. I saw a practical method discovered,
which, admitting of universal application, would en-
able parents, who have the welfare of their children at
heart, to become themselves the teachers of their Httle
ones " (How Gertrude Teaches).
It is interesting to notice that in a pamphlet, published
in 1778, describing his " Educational Establishment for
poor children at Neuhof," Pestalozzi says : ** In the
management of the establishment ... I have ... a
man who winds for the weavers and teaches reading at
at the same time '*.
Pestalozzi wrote, with the aid of his assistants. The
Book for Mothers and his Elementary Books, so that parents
and others might be enabled to carry on the earliest
education of infants. Shortly before the issue of these
books (at Burgdorf), it will be remembered, the School
Commission had reported that his plan of instruction
was so simple and suitable that it '' could be applied
during the earliest years at which instruction could be
given in the family circle : by a mother, by a child who
was a little older than the beginner, or by an intelligent
teachers' qualifications. 265
servant whilst doing her household work ". But Pesta-
lozzi himself had doubts as to the practical success of
such books. In the preface to The Book for Mothers he
writes: *' I know quite well what will happen: this
poor rind, which is simply the outer form of my method,
will seem to be its real substance to many men, who
will try to fit in this form with their own narrow circle
of ideas, and will then judge of the value of my method
according to the results which follow from this strange
mixture ".
M. Buss says of Pestalozzi's method: "The effect of
Pestalozzi's method is to render every individual intel-
lectually independent, by awakening and strengthening
in him the power of advancing by himself in every
branch of knowledge. It seemed like a great wheel,
which, if once set going, would continue to turn round
of itself. Nor did it appear so to me only. Hundreds
came, and saw, and said : ' Why, that's what I can do
myself at home with my child '. And they were right.
The whole of the method is mere play for any one who
has followed its progress sufficiently to be secured
against the danger of straying into those round-about
paths which lead man away from the foundation of
nature. . . . Nature herself demands nothing of us, but
what is easy, provided we seek it in the right way, and
under her guidance."
M. Fischer, in summarising Pestalozzi's theory of
education, gave as one of the ways in which it sought
to simplify the mechanism of instruction: ''The book
is to replace the teacher ". Pestalozzi in commenting
on this statement says that he considers this essential ;
for, he believes, there can be no real advance until
forms of instruction have been found, such that the
266 PESTALOZZI.
teacher will be, at least for all elementary knowledge,
the mere mechanical tool of a method : the results of
which will inevitably arise from the method itself and
not from the ability of the man who uses it. A text-
book is only good in so far as an uninstructed school-
master can use it, at any rate as far as absolute needs
are concerned, almost as well as an educated and able
teacher. The ignorant man and the mother must find
in it sufficient guidance and help to enable him and
her always to be a little in advance of the child, in re-
lation to that to which they are to lead it.
Other extracts from How Gertrude Teaches will show
how firmly Pestalozzi held to the view that any one
can teach, if he will only follow a plan laid down for
him by one who has got to the roots of the matter : " If
I could do fully what I try to do, it is only necessary
for me to explain it, to enable the simplest man to do
it afterwards. . . . Whatever he picks up from his text-
books, and wishes to teach the children, should be so
simple that every mother, and later every teacher, even
those with the slightest ability for instruction, can follow,
repeat, explain, and combine into a whole. ... I saw
a universal psychological method developed, by which
all parents who were inclined to do so, might be put in
a position to instruct their own children, and thereby
obviate the supposed need of training teachers, for a
long period, in expensive institutions and by educational
libraries."
Simultaneous Oral Work. Pestalozzi's own view of
this is clear and definite. He began it at Stanz ; when,
without any experience, training, or skill in the art of
teaching, he first dealt with a group of children under
school conditions. He says: "I stood in the midst of
SIMULTANEOUS WORKS. 267
these children, pronouncing various sounds and asking
them to imitate me ; whoever saw it was struck with
the effect. It is true it was a meteor which vanishes in
the air as soon as it appears. No one understood its
nature. I did not understand it myself. It was the
result of a simple feeling, or rather of a fact of human
nature which was revealed to my feelings, but of which
I was far from having a clear consciousness " (Letter
about Stanz). This seems to imply that — however
ignorant and unprepared — the immediate reaction of
the mind, to thre influence of a set of difficult circum-
stances demanding instant solution, is likely to be
fundamentally right.
He again refers, in How Gertrude Teaches, to his ex-
periences at Stanz, and says : " Being obliged to instruct
the children by myself, without any assistance, I learned
the art of teaching a great number together ; and as I
had no other means of bringing the instruction before
them, than that of pronouncing everything to them
loudly and distinctly, I was naturally led to the idea of
making them draw, write, or work, at the same time.
The confusion of so many voices, repeating my words,
suggested the necessity of keeping time in our exercises,
and I soon found that this contributed materially to
make their impressions stronger and more distinct."
In his Guide for Teaching Spelling and Readings he
says: ''A great advantage is to be gained for the in-
struction of a large number of children in public schools,
by accustoming them, from the very beginning, to pro-
nounce simultaneously whatsoever sound may have
been repeated or pointed out to them by the teachers,
so that all their voices together shall produce but one
sound. By doing this in a stated measure [i.e.^ sing-
268 PESTALOZZI.
song], a large class is carried on with the same ease as
a single pupil, and the effect produced upon the senses
of the children is far more powerful."
At the same time Pestalozzi appears to have had in
mind a definite limitation of such work. In speaking of
Kriisi's learning of his theories and methods, at Burg-
dorf, he says: "The sentences, descriptive of walking,
standing, lying, singing, etc., which I gave the children
to learn, led Kriisi to see the connection between the
beginnings of my instruction and the purpose at which
I was aiming, viz.^ to produce a general clearness in
the mind on all subjects. He soon felt that if the
children are made to describe in this manner things
which are so clear to them that experience cannot
render them any clearer, they must thereby be checked
in the presumption of describing things of which they
have no knowledge ; and at the same time they must
acquire the power of describing whatever they do know,
to a degree which will enable them to give concise,
definite and comprehensive descriptions of whatever
falls under their observation " {How Gertrude Teaches).
M. Soyaux refers to the simultaneous method in his
account of his visit to Yverdon. He says : *' They do
not answer one at a time, according as they are able or
not, but all who can answer call out together. This
may have its advantages ; but the shouting, in which
the children take great delight, ought not to be per-
mitted. I have sometimes actually been driven out of
the room by the deafening noise which was made when
several classes recited at the same time. The severe
exhaustion which follows is certainly not good for the
voice : the ear gets used to loud noises, and in the end
the boy gets into the habit of shouting at all times."
PUPILS AS TETACHERS. 269
Mutual Instruction. From the very first Pestalozzi
appears to have believed in the instruction of children
by children, although he seems very clearly to realise
that limitations are necessary. Thus, in speaking of
Gertrude's children, he says: "All that they learnt
they knew so thoroughly that they were able to teach
it to others ; and they often asked to be allowed to
teach younger children — this they were allowed to do.
Thus one would see a boy with each arm around the
neck of a smaller boy, while he made them say, after
him, the syllables from the ABC book ; or a girl would
place herself and her wheel between two of the younger
girls and teach them, with the greatest patience, the
words of a hymn " (Leonard and Gertrude).
When he was at Stanz, he put into practice his plan
of mutual instruction. '' The number and inequality
of my children rendered my task easier. Just as in a
family the eldest and cleverest child readily shows what
he knows to his younger brothers and sisters, and feels
proud and happy to be able to take his mother's place
for a moment, so my children were delighted when they
knew something they could teach others. A sentiment
of honour awoke in them, and they learned twice as
well by making the younger ones repeat their work.
In this way I soon had helpers and collaborators
amongst the children themselves.
" When I was teaching them to spell difficult words by
heart, I used to allow any child who succeeded in say-
ing one properly to teach it to the others. These child-
helpers, whom I had formed from the very outset, and
who had followed my method step by step, were certainly
much more useful to me than any regular schoolmaster
could have been. I myself learned with the children, . , ,
2/0 PESTALOZZI.
"Children became the teachers of children. They
endeavoured to carry into effect what I proposed, and
in doing so they themselves frequently traced the means
of execution. ... To this also I was brought chiefly by
necessity. Seeing that I had no assistant-teachers, I
placed a child of superior capacities between two of
inferior powers. He threw his arms round their necks ;
he taught them what he knew, and they learned from
him what they knew not. They sat by the side of each
other with heart-felt affection. Joy and love animated
their souls ; the life which was awakened within them,
and which had taken hold of their minds, carried both
teachers and learners forward with a rapidity and cheer-
fulness which this process of mutual enlivening alone
could produce." Pestalozzi had expected to have proper
assistants. In a letter to Dr. Rengger he writes : "I
am waiting impatiently for letters from Zurich on the
subject of the assistants of both sexes of whom I stand
in need ".
Staff Conferences, etc. In the report by the Com-
missioners who inspected the institute at Yverdon an
account is given of its government. " Each depart-
ment of instruction has a certain number of professors,
every one of whom takes a certain part of the work, and
takes up the thread where his predecessor dropped it.
These professors form a special committee, which meets
once a week for an interchange of experiences and
opinions which have resulted from their teaching, so
that all may benefit thereby, and the teaching as a
whole profit. Besides the teaching department there
are two others : one for discipline and the other for
religion. The masters in charge of the one collect
the reports of the masters who have done supervision
STAFF CONFERENCES. 2^1
duty, and decide on the question of the breaking of
rules. The masters responsible for the other, which is
considered higher and more important, watch over the
moral and religious conduct of the pupils; and they
take into consideration the characters of the pupils,
their vices and bad habits, and the means to prevent or
remove these.
** Pestalozzi is present at the meetings of these com-
mittees, and is the guiding spirit and soul of them. At
the end of each week there is a joint meeting, the reso-
lutions of which have the force of law. There is no
respect of persons at these meetings : each one has the
influence which his knowledge, work, and the confidence
with which he inspires his colleagues, gives him. Who-
ever has anything to bring forward, has the right to be
heard. The head himself is so little jealous of the pre-
dominance which is due to him by right of his char-
acter, age and fame, that on ceremonious occasions, if
he takes part in them at all, he deputes to one of his
friends the duty of presiding over the assembly.
''The Board of Management has an office, the
members of which have a heavy task. The work is
twofold : one part literary and scientific ; the other cler-
ical, i.e.f the correspondence with pupils' parents. The
latter keeps registers, in which detailed reports of the
progress and character of each child are recorded, and
extracts from these are afterwards sent home to the
children's families. The literary side corresponds with
foreign teachers and the public: edits the periodicals
which are printed in Switzerland and Germany, and
inserts articles in learned reviews. Pestalozzi presides
over this extensive work and shares with his colleague^
a task which he could not manage alone/'
272 PESTALOZZI.
Dr. Biber also gives us an account of the staff con-
ferences. He says : '' Every teacher in his turn was
called upon to give an account of the manner in which
he proceeded in his lessons, and of the children who
were placed under his instruction, or his superintend-
ence. He was encouraged in freely communicating his
observations, stating his difficulties, and offering his
suggestions ; he had to expect from Pestalozzi and
from his brother teachers nothing but cordial assent
when he was in the right, and kind advice, or gentle
reproof, when he was in the wrong. It was in these
assemblies that the younger teachers learned, by the
manner in which they themselves were treated by the
elder members of the establishment, the difficult art of
living on an equality with those that were in a certain
sense their inferiors, without descending to a level with
them, and of admitting them to a familiarity which
bred no contempt.
" The remarks of each, together with the resolutions
to which they led, were put down in a minute-book,
which, while it formed the basis of an open and candid
correspondence with the parents, served as a useful
reference for any teacher who might wish for informa-
tion on some particular branch of the method, or con-
cerning some one or other of the pupils. The effect of
these constant communications on every subject con-
nected with their daily duties, could be no other than
to produce a kind of unity of feeling, of thought and
action among all the teachers of the establishment.
They were not left to first impressions, to erroneous
and prejudiced views ; they could not for any length of
time overrate or underrate the abilities, acquirements,
or moral deserts of any of the children,
STAFF CONFERENCES. 273
''The experience of one man threw light upon that
of the other ; one trait, one fact, explained the other ;
and much of the injustice of which a single teacher will
often, though ever so unwillingly, become guilty, was
prevented by the full picture which was drawn, by all
in common, of the state of mind of each pupil ; not to
mention the rich store of general knowledge of human
nature, which these conversations must have been the
means of eliciting from, and impressing upon, the
minds of all present.
" Another assembly of the teachers took place on
Saturday evenings, for the purpose of collecting what-
ever observations might have been made by each, indi-
vidually, during the course of the week, on matters of
general discipline, order, etc. Defects in the manage-
ment of the house, mistakes on the parts of teachers,
and misdemeanours on the parts of pupils, were here
brought under discussion. The result of these delibera-
tions, likewise, were put on record, and in a general
assembly of teachers and pupils, held on Sunday even-
ings, such points as referred to the past or future con-
duct of the latter, were introduced, and their attention
directed towards the means of remedying existing evils,
or of attaining any object that was found desirable.
" On all these occasions Pestalozzi's personal presence
imparted life and interest to the whole ; while such
subjects as were not fit for public discussion, were
settled by him in private interviews with the parties
concerned. Every teacher had at all times free access
to him, and he made a point of conferring with each of
them separately from time to time, on the duties which
devolved upon him, and the impediments by which his
progress might be obstructed."
18
274 PESTALOZZI.
Time=TabIe. At Burgdorf there was considerable
freedom as to times and lessons, though there seems
also to have been a standing arrangement which was
observed unless the teacher felt inclined to do otherwise.
That there was a definite time-table at Yverdon appears
certain from the fact that Froebel in the account of his
visit says: ''I saw the whole training of a great edu-
cational institution, work upon a clear and firmly settled
plan of teaching. I still possess the ' teaching-plan ' of
Pestalozzi's institution in use at that time.
''This teaching-plan contains, in my opinion, much
that is excellent. . . . Excellent, I thought, was the con-
trivance of the so-called ' circulating classes ' [wandernde
classen]. In each subject the instruction was always
taken at the same time throughout the entire establish-
ment. Thus the subject for teaching was fixed for
every class ; but the pupils were scattered amongst the
different classes according to their proficiency in the
subject being taught, so that the entire school was
redistributed in quite a distinct rearrangement for each
subject.
''The advantage of this contrivance struck me as
so obvious and so efficient that I have never since de-
parted from it in my educational work, nor could I now
bring myself to do so."
The hours for lessons, at Yverdon, were (i) from
6 till 7 ; (2) 8 till I2 ; (3) 1.30 till 4.30 ; and (4) 6 till 8.
Five to seven minutes for recreation were allowed be-
tween every two hours, in the morning (8 till 12). The
longer intervals for recreation were from 12 till i, and
from 4.30 till 5 (when fruit and bread were distributed).
School Punishments. In Leonard and Gertrude it is
urged that strict order and punctuality must be observed
PUNISHMENTS. 2/5
in school, for this would train for life. School must be^in
on the stroke of the clock, and no one must be allowed
to come late. The children must come clean in person
and clothing, and with their hair combed. The body
must be kept erect when the child is standing, sitting,
writing or working (spinning, etc.). The schoolroom
must be perfectly clean : no broken windows : and no
nails driven crookedly into the floor. Nothing must be
thrown upon the floor : children must not eat during
lessons : in getting up and sitting down they must not
push against each other.
At the close of school those children who had done
well during the day went up to the master and said :
" God be with you ! " He held out his hand and
replied: "God be with you, my dear child!" Next
went those who had only done fairly well, and to these
he said only: "God be with you!" without giving
them his hand. Those who had done badly had to
leave the room without going up to the master, or re-
ceiving a word of farewell from him. Punishments
were made to fit the crime: an idle child had to cut
fire-wood, etc. ; a forgetful child had to be messenger
for several days ; disobedient and impertinent children
were not spoken to in public, for a number of days, but
only in private after school ; wickedness and lying were
punished by the rod, and the culprit's name was entered
in a special book, and not erased until real amendment
had been shown. The master treated the children,
otherwise, with all kindness : talked with them more
than at any other time : and tried to help them to over-
come their failings.
While it was necessary to be very strict, love should
thus be used in conjunction with fear, for only so would
i8*
276 PESTALOZZI.
pvipils learn to root out evil habits — which they never
do of their own accord, but only under compulsion, and
because of good training.
Among other ways of getting order this was used:
" Silence, as an aid to application, is perhaps the
great secret of such an institution [at Stanz]. I
found it very useful to insist on silence when I was
teaching, and also to pay particular attention to the
attitude of my children. The result was that the
moment I asked for silence, I could teach in quite a
low voice. The children repeated my words alto-
gether ; and as there was no other sound, I was able
to detect the slightest mistakes of pronunciation. It
is true that this was not always so. Sometimes, whilst
they repeated sentences after me, I would ask them,
half in fun, to keep their eyes fixed on their middle
fingers. It is hardly credible how useful simple things
of this sort sometimes are as means to the very highest
ends. . . .
" When the children were obdurate and churlish, then
I was severe, and made use of corporal punishment.
. . . My punishments never produced obstinacy; the
children I had beaten were quite satisfied if a moment
afterwards I gave them my hand and kissed them, and
I could read in their eyes that the final effect of my
blows was really joy. The following is a striking
example of the effect this sort of punishment sometimes
had. One day one of the children I liked best, taking
advantage of my affection, unjustly threatened one of
his companions. I was very indignant, and my hand
did not spare him. He seemed at first almost broken-
hearted, and cried bitterly for at least a quarter of an
hour. When I had gone out, however, he got up, and
PUNISHMENTS. 277
going to the boy he had ill-treated, begged his pardon,
and thanked him for having spoken about his bad con-
duct. This was no comedy; the child had never seen
anything like it before. . . .
" I knew no other order, method, or art, but that
which resulted naturally from my children's conviction
of my love for them, nor did I care to know any other.
Thus I subordinated the instruction of my children to a
higher aim, which was to arouse and strengthen their
best sentiments by the relations of every-day life as they
existed between themselves and me."
Pestalozzi's views on corporal punishment were very
clear and definite. In his On the. Idea of Elementary
Education he lays it down that it is quite a mistake to
suppose that we can overcome the desires of the flesh
by simply talking to children. Neither are we likely to
be able always to bend the child's will to our own view
of what is best by mere words. Corporal punishment
will, in the last resource, be found to be necessary. It
is much more likely to be our weakness than our sense
of delicacy which persuades us that it is coarse and re-
pulsive to use blows. If we had confidence in our judg-
ment of what was necessary and right, and in our love
for the child in deciding this, we should not hesitate.
Because we cannot trust our love for the child, or the
child's confidence in our love for him, when we use
severe measures for his good, we think that our motives
will be misunderstood. It requires a real strength of
affection to chastise in love: it is weakness of love
which causes us to shrink from needful severity.
In the same work, and when discussing the question
of religious training, he says that it is good for the
child, even at an early age, to fear eternal punishment
278 PESTALOZZI.
as he fears his mother's rod ; and this so that the fear
of the lesser evil may help to save him from the greater.
He uses this parable in support of his viev^: *' If the
mother sees her child on the banks of a stream, across
vy^hich there is a dangerous plank, she says : * Do not
cross ! ' Should he try to cross, and thus be in danger
of drowning, she rushes to the treacherous plank and,
pale and trembling, snatches him from peril. Again
she warns him, with urgent emphasis : * Do not go on
the plank, for you may drown yourself! ' When she
gets him in doors she shows him the rod, saying, ' If you
go there again, I shall whip you ! ' If, nevertheless, he
does again try to cross the plank, she whips him ; and
then he never again ventures there, but still he loves
his mother as before."
In Leonard and Gertrude a mother thus speaks to her
child who has been gossiping, after repeated warnings
not to do it : '* ' You have been told, once for all, that
you are not to talk of anything that is no business of
yours ; but it is all in vain. There is no getting you
out of this habit, except by severe means ; and the very
first time that I catch you again in any such idle gossip,
I shall take to the rod.'
" The tears burst from poor Betty's eyes when her
mother mentioned the rod. The mother saw it and
said to her : * The greatest mischief, Betty, often arises
out of idle gossip, and you must be cured of that fault '."
A want of thoroughness and carefulness in work, so
far as the child was really capable of these, was regarded
as a fault to be cured. " I always made the children
learn perfectly even the least important things, and I
never allowed them to lose ground ; a word once learnt,
for instance, was never to be forgotten, and a letter
PUNISHMENTS. 279
once well written never to be written badly again. I
was very patient with all who were weak and slow, but
very severe with those who did anything less well than
they had done it before."
Ramsauer, describing his own experiences as a pupil
at the institution in Burgdorf, says : " Although Pesta-
lozzi at all times strictly prohibited his assistants from
using any kind of corporal punishment, yet he by no
means dispensed with it himself, but very often dealt out
boxes on the ears right and left. But most of the scholars
rendered his life very unhappy ; so much so that I felt
a real sympathy for him, and kept myself all the more
quiet."
M. Soyaux, of Berlin, who visited the institute at
Yverdon, says : *' As to discipline, the guiding principle
is to allow the greatest possible liberty to the children,
only trying to prevent abuses. In no case does the
restrictive side of a rule predominate. Masters and
pupils are as easy and natural in their manner as the
lonely mountain-dwellers. They know nothing of the
refinements of polite society, of polished phrases, or
of high etiquette. . . . While, however, enjoying com-
plete liberty they keep within certain reasonable limits ;
obstinacy, bullying, quarrelsomeness, etc., are extremely
unusual among them. . . . The masters never think of
enforcing their authority by commands or reproofs. . . .
" The children are, indeed, under too little restraint.
There are, in effect, hardly any rules at all. During
lessons they sit or stand as they feel inclined, and
wherever they choose. . . . Naturally, owing to their
youthful vivacity, they are more like a mob of people
pushing and shoving to get the best places rather than
a class of pupils who desire to learn, among whom
28o PESTALOZZI.
there should be proper order, if such an end is to be
gained."
De Guimps tells us that : " Three times a week the
masters rendered an account to Pestalozzi of the pupils'
work and behaviour. The latter were summoned by
the old man, five or six at a time, to receive his exhor-
tations or remonstrances. He would take them one by
one into a corner of his room, and ask them in a low
voice if they had something to tell him, or to ask him.
He tried in this way to gain their confidence, to find
out if they were happy, what pleased them, or what
troubled them."
Pestalozzi trained his pupils, as far as was possible,
in methods of self-government. He says: *' I appealed
to them in all matters that concerned the establishment.
It was generally in the quiet evening hours that I ap-
pealed to their free judgment. When, for example, it
was reported in the village that they had not enough to.
eat, I said to them, * Tell me, my children, if you are
not better fed than you were at home ? . . . Do you
lack anything that is really necessary ? Do you think
I could reasonably and justly do more for you ? ' . . .
In the same way, when I heard that it was reported
that I punished them too severely, I said to them :
* You know how I love you, my children ; but tell me,
would you like me to stop punishing you ? Do you
think that in any other way I can free you from your
deeply rooted bad habits, or make you always mind
what I say ? ' You were there, my friend [Gessner], and
saw with you own eyes the sincere emotion with which
they answered, * We do not complain of your treatment.
Would that we never deserved punishment; but when
we do, we are willing to bear it.' . . .
PUNISHMENTS. 281
" I shall never forget the impression that my words
produced, when in speaking of a certain disturbance
that had taken place amongst them, I said, ' My
children, it is the same with us as with every other
household ; when the children are numerous, and each
gives way to his bad habits, such disorder follows that
even the weakest mother is obliged to be reasonable,
and make them submit to what is just and right. And
that is what I must do now. If you do not willingly
assist in the maintenance of order, our establishment
cannot go on, you will fall back into your former con-
dition, and your misery — now that you have been ac-
customed to a good home, clean clothes, and regular
food — will be greater than ever."
But Pestalozzi was not less clear and definite in the
conviction that to do without corporal punishment is
the better way, and the end for which to strive. In
his letter about Stanz he says: " The pedagogical prin-
ciple which says we must win the hearts and minds of
our children by words alone without having recourse
to corporal punishment, is undoubtedly good, and to be
applied under favourable conditions and circumstances.
But with children with such widely different ages as
mine ; children for the most part beggars ; and all full
of deeply rooted faults ; a certain amount of corporal
punishment was inevitable, especially as I was anxious
to arrive surely, quickly, and by the simplest means, at
obtaining an influence over them all, to the end that I
might put them all on the right road.
'* I was compelled to punish them, but it would be a
mistake to suppose that I thereby, in any way, lost the
confidence of my pupils. It is not the rare and isolated
actions that form the opinions and feelings of children,
282 PESTALOZZI.
but the impressions of every day and every hour. From
such impressions they judge w^hether we are kindly
disposed to them or not, and this decides their general
attitude tow^ards us."
Again he writes : " I have urged the supreme char-
acter of the motive of sympathy as the one that should
early, and indeed principally, be employed in the
management of children " (On Infants Education).
CHAPTER XIV.
PESTALOZZI AS A PRACTICAL TEACHER.
To know something about the manner in which Pesta-
lozzi himself taught is, to say the least of it, a very
interesting matter to those who understand and believe
in his great educational principles. But we must not
expect to find in him the perfect pedagogue any more
than the perfect pedagogist. M. Fischer, who knew
him well, and loved him, said : " Pestalozzi under-
stands that he is lacking in much positive knowledge
and in practical skill in using his machinery ".
First let us note Pestalozzi's own accounts of his
actual work as a practical teacher. Writing of his work
in the orphan-school at Stanz, he says : " I had Gedicke's
reading-book, but it was of no more use to me than any
other school-book ; for I felt that, with all these children
of such different ages, I had an admirable opportunity
for carrying out my own views on early education. I
was well aware, too, how impossible it would be to
organise my teaching according to the ordinary system
in use in the best schools. As a general rule I attached
little importance to the study of words, even when ex-
planations of the ideas they represented were given.
I tried to connect study with manual labour, the school
with the workshop, and make one thing of them. But
I was the less able to do this as staff, material and
283
284 PESTALOZZI.
tools were all wanting. A short time only before the
close of the establishment, a few children had begun to
spin ; and I saw clearly that, before any fusion could
be effected, the two parts must be firmly established
separately — study, that is, on the one hand, and labour
on the other. . . .
*' I made them spell by heart before teaching them
their ABC, and the whole class could thus spell the
hardest words without knowing their letters. It will
be evident to everybody how great a call this made on
their attention. I followed at first the order of words
in Gedicke's book, but I soon found it more useful to
join the five vowels successively to the different con-
sonants, and so form a well-graduated series of syllables
leading from the simple to the compound. I had gone
rapidly through the scraps of geography and natural
history in Gedicke's book. Before knowing their letters
even, they could say properly the names of the different
countries. In natural history they were very quick in
corroborating what I taught them by their own personal
observations on plants and animals."
In describing his experiences at Burgdorf, he gives
us a still farther insight into his practical methods. He
writes: "I once more began crying my ABC from
morning till night, following without any plan the em-
pirical method interrupted at Stanz. I was indefatig-
able in putting syllables together and arranging them in
a graduated series ; I did the same for numbers ; I filled
whole note-books with them ; I sought by every means
to simplify the elements of reading and arithmetic, and
by grouping them psychologically, enable the child to
pass easily and surely from the first step to the second,
from the second to the third, and so on. The pupils no
PESTALOZZI AS TEACHER. 285
longer drew letters on their slates, but lines, curves,
angles and squares."
In How Gertrude Teaches Pestalozzi again refers to
his experiences, and says : " Being obliged to instruct
the children by myself, without any assistance, I learned
the art of teaching a great number together; and as I
had no other means of bringing the instruction before
them, than that of pronouncing everything to them
loudly and distinctly, I was naturally led to the idea
of making them draw, write, or work, at the same
time. The confusion of so many voices repeating my
words suggested the necessity of keeping time in our
exercises, and I soon found that this contributed
materially to make their impressions stronger and
more distinct."
So far we have had Pestalozzi speaking about himself,
now we will see what others say about him, on the
same points. Baron de Guimps, in his biography of
Pestalozzi, when giving an account of the work at
Stanz — an account which, he asserts, is wholly based
on official documents — says : '* Visitors to the establish-
ment often saw nothing but disorder and confusion,
with an entire absence, as it seemed, of all serious
instruction ". M. Zschokke, the Government Agent at
Stanz during Pestalozzi's time there, in his History of
the Memorable Facts of the Swiss Revolution — published in
1804 — says of the school, after Pestalozzi left it: " The
orphans, however, were still carefully taught, and such
matters as order and cleanliness, which had previously
been neglected, received particular attention ". M. Buss,
one of Pestalozzi's first assistants, speaking of his first
meeting with Pestalozzi, says : " The following morning
I entered his school : and, at first, I confess I saw in it
286 PESTALOZZI.
nothing but apparent disorder, and an uncomfortable
bustle".
The fullest sketch of Pestalozzi's proceedings in class
is given by his pupil Ramsauer. In reading this it
should be remembered that the events happened when
Ramsauer was about ten years of age and were described
thirty-eight years later. At the same time it should not
be forgotten that he was so long and so intimately con-
nected with Pestalozzi and his work that he is not very
likely to have exaggerated or misrepresented matters
much. This is his account : *' So far as ordinary school
knowledge was concerned, neither I nor the other boys
learned anything. But his zeal, love and unselfishness,
combined with his painful and serious position, evident
even to the children, made a most profound impression
upon me, and won my child's heart, naturally disposed
to be grateful, for ever. . . .
'* It is impossible to draw a clear and complete
picture of this school, but here are a few details. Ac-
cording to the ideas of Pestalozzi, all teaching was to
start from three elements: language, number and form.
He had no plan of studies and no order of lessons, and
as he did not limit himself to any fixed time, he often
followed the same subject for two or three hours to-
gether. We were about sixty boys and girls, from
eight to fifteen years old. Our lessons lasted from
eight till eleven in the morning, and from two till four
in the afternoon. All the teaching was limited to draw-
ing, arithmetic, and exercises in language. We neither
read nor wrote ; we had neither books nor copy-books ;
we learned nothing by heart.
" For drawing we were given neither models nor
directions ; only slates and red chalk, and while Pesta-
PESTALOZZI AS TEACHER. 28/
lozzi was making us repeat sentences on natural history
as an exercise in language, we had to draw just what
we Hked. But we did not know what to draw. Some
of us drew little men and women, others houses, others
lines or arabesques, according to their fancy. Pesta-
lozzi never looked at what we had drawn, or rather
scribbled, but from the state of our clothes it was pretty
evident that we had been using red chalk. For arith-
metic we had little boards divided into squares, in
which were dots that we had to count, add, subtract,
multiply and divide. It was from this that Kriisi and
Buss first took the idea of their ' table of units,' and
afterwards of their * table of fractions '. But as Pesta-
lozzi did nothing but make us repeat these exercises
one after another, without asking us any questions,
this process, excellent as it was, never did us very much
good.
" Our master never had the patience to go back, and,
carried away by his excessive zeal, he paid little atten-
tion to each individual scholar. The language exercises
were the best thing we had, especially those on the
wall-paper of the schoolroom, which were real practices
in sense-impression. We spent hours before this old
and torn paper, occupied in examining the number,
form, position and colour of the different designs, holes
and rents, and expressing our ideas in more and more
enlarged sentences. Thus he would ask : ' Boys, what
do you see ? ' He never addressed the girls.
'' Answer. * A hole in the paper.'
" Pestalozzi. ' Very well,.say after me : I see a hole in
the paper. I see a long hole in the paper. Through
the hole I see the wall. Through the long narrow hole
I see the wall. I see figures on the paper. I see
288 PESTALOZZI.
black figures on the paper. I see a square yellow figure
on the paper. By the side of the square yellow figure
I see a round black one. The square figure is joined
to the round figure by a large black stroke ' — and so on.
" Of less utility were those exercises in language
which he took from natural history, and in which we
had to repeat after him, and at the same time to draw,
as I have already mentioned. He would say : Amphi-
bious animals : crawling amphibious animals ; creeping
amphibious animals. Monkeys : long-tailed monkeys ;
short-tailed monkeys — and so on.
" We did not understand a word of this, for not a
word was explained, and it was all spoken in such a
sing-song tone, and so rapidly and indistinctly, that it
would have been a wonder if any one had understood
anything from it ; besides, Pestalozzi cried out so dread-
fully loudly and so continuously, that he could not hear
us repeat after him, the less so as he never waited
for us when he had read out a sentence, but went on
without intermission, and read off a whole page at
once. What he thus read out was drawn up on a
half-sheet of large-sized millboard, and our repetition
consisted for the most part in saying the last word or
syllable of each phrase, thus ' monkeys — monkeys,' or
* keys — keys '. There was never any questioning or
recapitulations.
*' As Pestalozzi, in his zeal, did not take any notice
of the time, we generally went on till eleven o'clock
with whatever he had commenced at eight, and by ten
o'clock he was always tired and hoarse. We knew
when it was eleven by the noise of other school-children
in the street, and then usually we all ran out, without
asking permission. ...
PESTALOZZI AS TEACHER. 289
" I must further say that in the first years of the
Burgdorf institute, nothing like a systematic plan of
lessons was followed, and that the whole life of the
place was so simple and home-like, that in the half-
hour's recreation which followed breakfast, Pestaloz^i
would often become so interested in the spirited games
of the children in the playground as to allow them to
go on undisturbed till ten o'clock. And on summer
evenings, after bathing in the Emme, instead of be-
ginning work again, we often stayed out till eight or
nine o'clock looking for plants and minerals."
The commission appointed by the " Society of the
Friends of Education " to report on Pestalozzi's work at
Burgdorf, mentions that singing and walking often took
the place of the regular lessons. M. Stapfer states that
Pestalozzi's personal neglect and his strange ways de-
stroyed his authority so that he lost control of his pupils,
and the prefect Schnell had to go to his assistance.
Raumer, speaking of his stay at Yverdon, says : " If
I wanted to do any work for myself, I had to do it while
standing at a writing-desk in the midst of the tumult of
one of the classes ".
Karl Ritter said : " Pestalozzi himself is unable to
apply his own method in any of the simplest subjects of
instruction. He is quick in grasping principles, but is
helpless in matters of detail ; he possesses the faculty,
however, of putting his views with such force and clear-
ness that he has no difficulty in getting them carried
out." This is, however, a description of Pestalozzi at
Yverdon, when, it must be remembered, he had given
up actual teaching, and where most of the matter
taught was on a very much higher level than he had
himself ever attempted.
19
290 PESTALOZZL
Kriisi thus describes Pestalozzi's manner in teaching :
'* He had, I was going to say, almost brazen lungs, and
any one who had not such would have to abandon all
idea of speaking, or rather shouting, incessantly as he
did. Even if I had had such lungs myself, I should
often have desired that he and his pupils, when reciting
or answering in class, might have used more modera-
tion and lowered their voices. . . . He endeavoured to
teach two subjects to a class at the same time ; he tried
in particular to combine exercises in speaking with free-
hand drawing and writing."
CHAPTER XV.
SOME CRITICISMS ON PESTALOZZI'S THEORIES.
The intelligent student of the science of education
who does not know more than Pestalozzi — and this
chiefly because of what Pestalozzi's life and work have
done for education — about some of the principles and
practice of education has not yet mastered the outlines
of his study. The advance in psychology — there was
no psychology, in the modern sense, in Pestalozzi's
time — alone has been so great that our knowledge of
educational ways and means is very much in advance
of what was possible in Pestalozzi's time ; and the
progress in practical methods has, in the case of the
most intelligent educators, been very considerable. But
while we reverently, but unflinchingly, sit in judgment
on that to which no higher compliment can be paid
than to feel that it merits our efforts to remove all that
may obscure the pure light of its great truths, let us never
forget that we do but brush the dust from the shoes of a
master — one whose shoe-latchets we may not be worthy
to unloose. After we have done this, let us, as it were,
once more stand back and respectfully take a full view
of the whole man ; and then shall we again feel that we
must " praise noble men and the fathers that begat us ".
The folly of the wise is often greater than the wisdom
of others : and we are not holy because we can see
faults in a saint,
291 19 *
292 PESTALOZZI.
Nor need we fear to undertake such a task in such a
spirit, for men like Pestalozzi are not only worthy of
this tribute from their disciples, but they themselves
desire it. They are concerned to teach what is true,
and to help their pupils to yet higher and fuller truths.
Thus Pestalozzi writes, in his Swans Song : " And
so I end my dying strain with the words with which I
began it : Prove all things and hold fast that which is
good ! If anything better has ripened in you, add it in
truth and love to what in truth and love I have en-
deavoured to give to you in these pages. . . . Such as
it is, give it an attentive examination, and whenever
you yourself light upon a truth which you think likely
to benefit humanity, do what you can for it, not so
much for my sake as for that of the end I have in view.
I ask nothing better than to be put on one side, and re-
placed by others, in all matters that others understand
better than I do ; so that they may be enabled to serve
mankind better than I have ever been able to do."
He also speaks of himself as " a man who wishes that
others may take up what he has commenced, and suc-
ceed where he may have failed " (On Infants^ Education).
The Simultaneous Oral Method. Raumer had a
discussion (at Yverdon) with Pestalozzi on this matter,
in which he very acutely criticised the method. Pesta-
lozzi had urged Raumer to teach mineralogy at the
institute, and Raumer replied : " If I do so, I must
entirely depart from the methods of instruction pursued
in the institution. Why so ? asked Pestalozzi. Ac-
cording to that method, I replied, I should have to do
nothing but hold up before the boys one specimen after
another, to give the name of each, for example: 'That
js ch^lk,' and thereupon to make the class repeat in
SOME CRITICISMS. 293
unison three times : ' That is chalk '. It was thought
that in this way observation of actual objects and in-
struction in language were provided for at the same
time.
" I endeavoured to explain that such a mode of
instruction made a mere show, giving the children
words before they had formed an idea of the images of
the minerals ; that moreover the process of perception
and conception was only disturbed by the talking of the
teacher and the repetition of the scholars, and was
therefore best done in silence. On Pestalozzi's oppos-
ing this view, I asked him why children are born
speechless, and do not begin to learn to speak until
they are about three years old ; why we should in vain
hold a light before a child eight days old, and say
* light ' three times, or even a hundred times, as the
child would certainly not try to repeat the word ;
whether this was not an indication to us, from a higher
hand, that time is necessary for the external perception
of the senses to become internally appropriated, so that
the word shall only come forth as the matured fruit of
the inward conception, now fully formed. What I said
about the silence of children struck Pestalozzi."
Dr. Biber also has a shrewd and suggestive criticism
on this subject. He says that the use of simultaneous
work in education ''depends entirely on the stage of
development which the children have attained. With
such as have grown up in a condition almost savage,
or worse than savage, and who are for the first time
brought together under an influence intended for their
improvement, the lowest degree of simultaneous action
is calculated to arouse the soul from that selfish indo-
lence in which it loves nothing, and observes nothing,
294 PESTALOZZI.
but self; and disturbs everything around it, not from a
wish to do so, but from an exclusive tendency to follow
self, and from an entire inattention to the fact that there
exists anything but itself."
Without entering into details we may suggest some
points which arise in the consideration of this method :
(i) How far does it enable a few to lead, and all the
others to follow mechanically — compare the case of
members of a choir who cannot sing a simple tune
directly from the score, but can manage quite difficult
pieces when accompanied by piano, organ, or orchestra ;
(2) how far is the effect likely to be almost wholly aural,
i.e., the ear-memory is chiefly, if not wholly, cultivated ;
(3) how far is the sound, or the sentence, likely to be
corrupted and misunderstood in the mixture of voices ;
(4) how far is the teacher likely to be able to tell
whether an individual is really, partly, or wrongly doing
what is expected; (5) how far is the method likely to
discourage initiative, self-activity and self-dependence ;
(6) how far can a method which demands so much uni-
formity meet, to any reasonable extent, the diversity of
quickness, intelligence, knowledge and ability v/hich
must exist even in the most homogeneous class; (7)
how far are the possible, and actual, results of such a
method — muscular-memory, nerve-memory, etc. — worth
the time and trouble taken, in a system of true educa-
tion ; (8) would not these results be necessarily produced
by the truly educational method, and, therefore, more
surely and soundly ; (9) how far does it interfere with, or
prevent, the intuitive activity which Pestalozzi regards
as the essential of all true education.
Mutual Instruction. Several references have already
been made to the fact that Pestalozzi set children to
SOME CRITICISMS. 295
teach other children. Some used this as an argument
in favour of Bell's and Lancaster's monitorial system.
It is, however, clear that there is a great difference
between the two, e.g., Pestalozzi used one child to teach
one other child — or two other children — whilst Bell and
Lancaster used one child to teach a group of other
children ; and Pestalozzi made use of a child who had
been developed by his teaching until it had an in-
telligent mastery of whatever it was allowed to show to
others, whilst Bell and Lancaster simply drilled their
monitors in certain matter and method, and then set
them to drill groups of other children in the same matter
and by the same method.
It is interesting to note what Pestalozzi and Dr. Bell
thought of each other's system. In 1815 the latter
visited the institute at Yverdon, and at the end of his
visit remarked to the interpreter (Ackermann, a former
pupil with Pestalozzi) who accompanied him : " In
another twelve years mutual instruction will be adopted
by the whole world, and Pestalozzi's method will be
forgotten ". A few days afterwards a casual visitor
said to Pestalozzi : "It is you, sir, I believe, who in-
vented mutual instruction ? " *' God forbid ! " answered
Pestalozzi.
We suggest the following points for consideration :
(i) Will the brightest or the dullest children receive
such instruction ; (2) if the dullest, do they need the
most, or least, skilful educator; (3) is even a bright
child the best, or a good, agent for securing what Pesta-
lozzi meant when he said, " I want to psychologise
education " ; (4) is telling (or showing) the same thing,
in method and eifect, as teaching ; (5) does, or can, one
child consciously realise, understand and diagnose the
296 PESTALOZZI.
weaknesses and difficulties of another child, and provide
for and solve them educationally ; and (6) are the pos-
sible, and actual, results of the method worth the time
and trouble taken, in a system of true education. Is
there any pertinence in the saying : " Can the blind lead
the blind ? shall they both not fall into the ditch ? "
Number Teaching. It will be remembered that
Pestalozzi proceeds to develop ideas of number by con-
stantly adding one more to the commencing unit. On
this Dr. Biber remarks: '' Pestalozzi considers number
only seriatim, and, therefore, considers all arithmetic as
a mere enlargement or abridgment of the form.ula ' one
and one are two ' ; overlooking altogether the important
fact that this formula, which expresses the juxtaposi-
tion of two objects, presupposes in the mind the idea of
two. In the same manner its enlargement in ' one and
one and one are three,' presupposes the idea of three ;
for this simple reason that it is impossible to conceive
the operation of putting together, without having an
idea of that which is to be put together, no more than
it is possible to conceive the operation of building with-
out any idea of building materials.
"The origin of number must not be sought in the
repetition of units ; because without the previous idea
of number, the idea of repetition could not exist. . . .
Whence shall we obtain it ? . . . The answer to this
question is given in what may appropriately be termed
the generic power of number, or the power of every
number [i.e., what is more than one] to produce out of
itself an indefinite series of numbers."
This is somewhat obscure, but suggests a sound
criticism on Pestalozzi's theory, viz., that the basis of
number is, in its earliest stages, what we may term a
SOME CRITICISMS. 297
collective-divisible idea, not an individual-multiple idea.
As Professor James says: "Number seems to signify
primarily the strokes of our attention in discriminating
things. These strokes remain in the memory in groups,
large or small, and the groups can be compared. The
discrimination is, as we know, psychologically facilitated
by the mobility of the thing as a total. But within each
thing we discriminate parts ; so that the number of the
things which any one thing may be depends in the last
instance on our way of taking it. A globe is one, if un-
divided ; two, if composed of hemispheres. A sand-heap
is one thing, or twenty thousand things, as we may
choose to count it. We amuse ourselves by the count-
ing of mere strokes, to form rhythms, and these we
compare and name. Little by little in our minds the
number-series is formed."
It is the group element of the idea which is, in the
first instance — and always, for purposes of computation
— the most important, and helpful, to the learner. The
thorough grasp of what " three " is, as three, and the
ready mental recognition of it as part of a larger group
should be first secured. Its analysis into two and one :
one and one and one, will, so to say, come of itself. Of
course the intuition of numbers as groups cannot be
carried very far, because of visual limitations ; but
after the collective-divisible phase is exhausted the
collective-multiple idea can be employed, i.e., a group of
things in which two fours can be seen is eight, etc.
Language, form and number, as the fundamental
elements in all intuitions, is a theory which is open to
very serious criticisms. Whilst, no doubt, the applica-
tion of these as channels of information, about such
intuitions as admit of it, is very helpful ; they cannot
298 PESTALOZZI.
be applied to all intuitions, and are not essential to
many, e.g.-, shades of sharpness and flatness in sing-
ing, etc. (no names), water (no shape), sweetness (no
number). Yet Pestalozzi asserts " that all our know-
ledge arises out of number, form and words ". Again,
he says that '* number, form and name are found uni-
versally in all objects ". This is seriously wrong, for
number and name are, so to say, attached to objects
by ourselves, not found in them ; whilst form only
belongs to certain physical objects.
He is self-contradictory in some of his own state-
ments on the matter. Though he rightly says that
language *'is the reflex of all the impressions which
nature's entire domain has made on the human race" ;
he, nevertheless, goes on to claim for it that it is also
the origin and source of knowledge : ** I make use of it,
and endeavour, by the guidance of its uttered sounds, to
reproduce in the child the self-same impressions which,
in the human race, have occasioned and formed these
sounds. Great is the gift of language. It gives to the
child in one moment what nature required thousands of
years to give to man."
A sound cannot possibly do this. It can only recall
those impressions which objects and experiences have
made, and which have been voluntary (and arbitrarily)
associated with certain sounds which we call names.
We might have called a horse a pimho ; and whatever
sound we use as its name is only useful to recall the
impressions which the animal (or its picture, etc.) has
made upon us. A simple illustration of this will show
what the facts are : suppose a child to read a list of
the names of things in a miscellaneous collection in a
museum, what impressions would be reproduced in him
SOME CRITICISMS. 299
by the names which he does not ah'eady know. In
other words, the sound apart from its association does
nothing; it is the habitual association of sound with
percepts and concepts which is the active influence. All
this is very clearly set out in what Pestalozzi says of
definitions : " Whenever he [man] is left without the
greatest clearness of observation of a natural object
which has been defined to him, he only learns to play
with words like so many counters, deceives himself, and
places a blind belief in sounds which will convey to him
no idea, nor give rise to any other thought, except just
this, that he has uttered certain sounds". In other
words, the only impressions reproduced by sounds, as
such, are impressions already made by sounds, as such.
Yet, after all, Pestalozzi did a great service to educa-
tion by insisting upon the importance and value of
these points of view in the development of clear ideas
and distinct notions ; he was only wrong in the reasons
he gave for his views. His own statement of the
practical purpose of his use of these three points is
significant. He says that he bases instruction upon
them " in order to enable children : (i) to view every
object which falls under their perception as a unit ;
that is to say, as distinct from all other objects with
which it seems connected. (2) To make themselves
acquainted with its form or outline, with its measure
and its proportions. (3) To designate, as early as
possible, by descriptive words and names, all the ob-
jects which have thus come to their knowledge. . . .
This requires that the means by which those faculties
[number, form and language] are developed and culti-
vated, should be brought to the utmost simplicity, and
to perfect consistency and harmony with each other."
300 PESTALOZZI.
All this is admirable so far as it goes, and in cases in
which it can be applied; though it does not justify the
claims which Pestalozzi made for it. But, as he him-
self says : ^'my whole manner of life has given me no
power, or inclination, quickly to work out bright and
clear ideas on a subject, until, supported by facts it has
a background in me that gives rise to some self-con-
fidence. Therefore, to my grave I shall remain in a
kind of fog about most of my views. . . . While I have
done very little during my life to reach ideas that can
be defined with philosophical certainty ; nevertheless, I
have, in my own way, found a few means to my end,
which I should not have found by philosophical in-
quiries— such as I was capable of making — after clear
ideas on my subject."
*' Discover everything.'* Ramsauer, speaking of
Pestalozzi's relations with his staff, says: ''Even in
our pedagogics, he would not permit us to make use
of the results of the experience of other times or other
countries : we were to read nothing, but discover every-
thing for ourselves. Hence the whole strength of the
institute was always devoted to experiments."
Truttman observed the same attitude of mind in
Pestalozzi, in connection with the work at Stanz. De-
scribing what he considered the faults of organisation
and method, he says: "I begged him even to go to
Zurich, to study in detail the organisation of the poor-
school in that town, with a view to imitating it, as far
as possible in Stanz. He accordingly went, but I do
not expect any satisfactory outcome from his visit, be-
cause his idea is to do everything for himself, without
any plan, and without any assistance other than that
given by the children themselves."
SOME CRITICISMS. 30I
Now whilst for the student-beginner the discovery
method of training is of the highest possible value, and
an indispensable training ; its chief value later on is that
it enables the learner to take real advantage of other
men's work and to enter into their labours, without going
through all the work they had to perform. But for men
who were engaged in so difficult and delicate a task as
that of educating the young, and who were themselves
largely untrained and undisciplined, intellectually, to
refuse to make use of existing means — if they could
approve them — was, to say the least of it, unwise.
Not that there was much of which Pestalozzi could
approve ; but the attitude of mind was, in itself, wrong ;
and was likely to cause much waste of time and, per-
haps, undue self-satisfaction. It will he remembered
that Pestalozzi — so far did he carry this idea — several
times boasts that he has not read a book for nearly
thirty years. One instance will suffice to show the
mistake of all this : Basedow had endeavoured to carry
out, at his Philanthropmum school at Dessau, the prin-
ciples of Rousseau's Entile ; and amidst much that was
superficial and merely sensational, was doing some good
work. A study of his work and writings would have
taught something, of both positive and negative value,
to the Pestalozzians.
Criticising this attitude, Raumer writes : "Hence it
came, as I have already said, that he committed so
many mistakes usual with self-taught men. He wants
the historical basis ; things which others had discovered
long before appear to him to be quite new when thought
of by himself or any one of his teachers. He also tor-
ments himself to invent things which had been invented
and brought to perfection long before, and might have
302 f'ESTALOZZI.
been used by him, if he had only known of them. For
example, how useful an acquaintance with the excellent
Werner's treatment of the mineralogical characters of
rocks would have been to him, especially in the defini-
tion of the ideas, observation, naming, description, etc.
*' As a self-taught man, he every day collected heaps
of stones in his walks. If he had been under the dis-
cipline of the Fribourg School, the observation of a
single stone would have profited him more than large
heaps of stones, laboriously brought together, could do,
in the absence of such discipline.
"Self-taught men, I say, want the discipline of the
school. It is not simply that, in the province of the
intellectual, they often find only after long wanderings
what they might easily have attained by a direct and
beaten path : they want also the ethical discipline,
which restrains us from running according to caprice
after intellectual enjoyments, and wholesomely compels
us to deny ourselves and follow the path indicated to
us by the teacher.
" Many, it is true, fear that the oracular instinct of
the self-taught might suffer from the school. But, if
the school is of the right sort, this instinct, if genuine,
will be strengthened by it ; deep felt, dreamy and
passive presentiments are transformed into sound,
waking and active observation."
Anybody can teach. Pestalozzi's views on this point
raises some very serious and important issues. Is all
our modern zeal for technical education and training a
mistake : is the man in the street, if he be told how, as
capable as the well-trained expert who knows both the
why and the how in a scientific and practical way : is
the school as the teacher's book, or as the teacher : is
SOME CRITICISMS. 303
the final efficiency of the worker to be measured by the
quality and power of his mind and character, or by
those of the one who simply gives him instructions to
be carried out : is the educator a machine minder or a
mind maker? These are questions which must be
settled in deciding such a point.
At the same time there are elements of truth even in
the extremest view of the statement that any one can
teach. In the first place, any one with ordinary in-
teUigence and power can, by careful and thorough
training, be made into an averagely good teacher. It
is not necessary to be a "born teacher'* to be a good
practical teacher. The ''born teacher" — to give the
phrase real meaning — is one with at least a touch of
genius for teaching, i.e., he has exceptional native
capacity and disposition for the work of teaching. Any
one can play five-finger exercises on the piano satis-
factorily, if he be not defective in mind or deformed of
hand ; but one must be born with exceptional powers
of mind and hand to become a really first-rate pianist,
— of the type of which such men as Paderewski are the
supreme examples.
Further, it is true that, without any training what-
ever, an intelligent person can follow a course of
action laid down by another, and that certain results
will be obtained according as the course itself is sound,
and the worker carries it out thoroughly and accurately.
But even material machines go wrong, and the best of
courses do not fit every possible circumstance. What
can the person who does not understand the machinery,
and knows nothing of the system except that he is to
follow it as laid down, do when either the one or the
other fails to keep to what is ordinarily expected of
304 PESTALOZZI.
them ? If this be so of material machinery, how much
more is it true of living and growing things, and
especially of so complex and delicate a living organism
as the human being ?
Again, it is even true that the exceptionally intelli-
gent, observant and thoughtful persons will redis-
cover the principles of education, and do much work
that is valuable and lasting. But at what cost of
mistakes, and permanent and serious injuries? So far
as such a one relies upon himself he is practically cer-
tain to commit most of the mistakes which have been
made by the human race in its efforts to work out the
best system of education. Why should this be done ?
What should we say of the man who turned his back
on all existing medical knowledge, and the opportunities
for medical training, so that he might rediscover the
truths and principles of the healing arts while practis-
ing on his patients ?
Of what a genius — the rarest of exceptions — can do,
and can not do, without training, we can see in the
case of Pestalozzi himself. Pestalozzi says : "I could
neither write, sum, nor read perfectly. . . . [But] I
could teach writing without being able to write per-
fectly myself." M. Buss says of Pestalozzi: ''He
could, unfortunately, neither write nor draw well,
though he had brought his children, in some, to me,
inconceivable manner well on in both these subjects ".
Karl Ritter, the great geographer, pays this high tri-
bute to Pestalozzi's teaching (or, should we say, inspir-
ation) : " Pestalozzi knew less geography than a child
in one of our primary schools ; yet it was from him that
I obtained my chief ideas on this science, for it was in
listening to him that I first conceived the idea of the
SOME CRITICISMS. 305
natural method. It was he who opened up the way to
me, and I take pleasure in attributing entirely to him
whatever value my work may have."
M. Charles Monnard says that Pestalozzi, when he
went to Burgdorf to teach, ** would have had no chance
whatever against even the most ordinary candidates
[for a post as teacher]. He had everything against
him : thick, indistinct speech, bad writing, ignorance of
drawing, scorn of grammatical learning. He had
studied various branches of natural history, but had
paid no particular attention either to classification or
nomenclature. He was acquainted with the ordinary
numerical calculations, but he would have found it
difficult to work out a really long sum in multiplication
or division, and had probably never attempted to solve
a problem in geometry. For years he had done no
study, only dreamed. He could not even sing, though,
when greatly excited or elated, he would hum to him-
self snatches of poetry ; not, however, with very much
tune."
What Pestalozzi did, in spite of all these drawbacks,
he did because he was the genius that he was, and not
because he had received no special training and prepar-
ation for his work. The roughest diamond is a diamond
still ; but the cut and polished stone is the best both for
work and as art. When ordinary stones claim to be
as diamonds, both danger and disaster will result.
Other points of view in considering this question may
be suggested, viz., the efficiency of doctors as compared
with that of trained nurses in dealing with the body :
the efficiency of the trained nurse as compared with
that of the parent, in carrying out a doctor's orders : the
efficiency of the trained artisan as compared with that
20
306 PESTALOZZI.
of the man in the street, in ordinary affairs : the differ-
ence between learning, and observing how we learn :
the difference between seeing that there is a difficulty,
and in recognising in what the difficulty consists : and
the difference between recognising the elements which
make the difficulty, and knowing the best method of
overcoming it.
CHAPTER XVI.
WHAT PESTALOZZI DID FOR EDUCATION.
Pestalozzi himself declares what he sought to ac-
complish, viz.f (i) in the theory of education : *' I want
to psychologise instruction " ; (2) in the art of educa-
tion: "The public common school coach, throughout
Europe, must not simply be better horsed: what it
needs most of all is that it should be turned completely
round, and brought on to an entirely new road ". And
this as a stepping-stone to the general good, through the
advancement of the welfare of the working classes. As
he himself says, in writing of the effect of Rousseau's
works on his mind, he desired an '' extended sphere of
activity, in which [he] might promote the welfare and
happiness of the people " ; and again, in his letter to
Anna Schulthess : "I shall not forget the precepts of
Menalk, and my first resolutions to devote myself
wholly to my country ; I shall never, from fear of man,
refrain from speaking, when I see that the good of my
country calls ujx)n me to speak ; my whole heart is my
country's ; I will risk all to alleviate the need and
misery of my fellow-countrymen ".
As to his success Raumer says : " He compelled the
scholastic world to revise the whole of their task, to
reflect on the nature and destiny of man, as also on the
proper way of leading him from his youth towards his
307 20 *
308 PESTALOZZI.
destiny. And this was done, not in the superficial
rationalistic manner of Basedow and his school, but so
profoundly that even a man like Fichte anticipated very
great things from it." Professor Joseph Payne declares
that Pestalozzi "stands forth among educational re-
formers as the man whose influence on education is
wider, deeper, more penetrating than that of all the
rest — the prophet and the sovereign of the domain in
which he lived and laboured ".
Fichte said : " Pestalozzi's essential aim has been to
raise the lower classes, and clear away all differences
between them and the educated classes. It is not only
popular education that is thus realised, but national
education. Pestalozzi's system is powerful enough to
help nations, and the whole human race, to rise from
the miserable state in which they have been wallow-
ing." Herbart writes: "The welfare of the people is
Pestalozzi's aim — the welfare of the common, crude
population. He desired to take care of those of whom
fewest do take care. He did not seek the crown of
merit in your mansions, but in your hovels."
Of Pestalozzi's work Herbart says : " The whole field
of actual and possible sense-perception is open to the
Pestalozzian method; its movements in it will grow
constantly freer and larger. Its peculiar merit consists
in having laid hold more boldly and more zealously
than any former method of the duty of building up the
child's mind ; of constructing in it a definite experience
in the light of clear sense-perception ; not acting as if
the child had already an experience, but taking care
that it gets one ; by not chatting with him as though
in him, as in the adult, there was already a need for
communicating and elaborating his acquisitions; but.
WHAT PESTALOZZI DID. 309
in the very first place, giving him that which later on
can be, and is to be, discussed.
*' The Pestalozzian method, therefore, is by no means
qualified to crowd out any other method, but to pre-
pare the way for it. It takes the earliest age that is at
all capable of receiving instruction. It treats it with
the seriousness and simplicity which are appropriate
where the very first raw materials are to be procured."
Professor A. Pinloche, in the introduction to his book
on Pestaiozzi, says : " For Pestalozzi was reserved the
undying fame of having not only restored to credit the
processes of the method of sense-perception, already known
and applied, but, above all, of having realised both the
social importance of the education of the people and
the most suitable means of determining its method ".
He also speaks of Pestalozzi's ''original and powerful
pedagogy ".
Mr. Thomas Davidson, in A History of Education ,
says : '' Pestalozzi is the parent of the modern love for
children, and it is this love that has transformed educa-
tion from a harsh, repressive discipline into a tender,
thoughtful guidance. . . . After Pestalozzi people saw
children with new eyes, invested them with new interest,
and felt the importance of placing them in a true rela-
tion to the world of nature and culture. It is not too
much to say that all modern education breathes the
spirit of Pestalozzi. It is education for freedom, not
for subordination."
Dr. Diesterweg, a great German educationist, thus
sums up the changes brought about by Pestalozzi :
" Instead of brutal, staring stupidity, close and tense
attention ; for dull and blockish eyes, cheerful and
pleased looks ; for crooked back, the natural erectness
3IO
PESTALOZZI,
of figure; for dumbness or silence, joyous pleasure in
speaking, and promptitude that even takes the word
out of another's mouth ; for excessive verbosity in the
teacher, and consequent stupidity in the scholar, a dia-
logic, or, at least, a dialogic-conversational method ; for
government by the stick, a reasonable and therefore a
serious and strict discipline ; for mere external doctrines
and external discipline, a mental training, in which
every doctrine is a discipline also ; instead of govern-
ment by force, and a consequent fear of the school and
its pedant, love of school, and respect for the teacher ".
W. C. Woodbridge, in the Annals of Education, says :
" He combated with unshrinking boldness and untir-
ing perseverance, through a long life, the prejudices and
abuses of the age in reference to education, both by
his example and by his numerous publications. He
attacked with great vigour, and no small degree of
success, that favourite maxim of bigotry and tyranny,
that obedience and devotion are the legitimate offspring
of ignorance. ... In this way he produced an impulse
which pervaded Europe and which, by means of his
popular and theoretical works, reached the cottages of
the poor and the palaces of the great."
To sum up briefly what Pestalozzi accomplished, we
may say that he democratised education : he psycholo-
gised it : he revolutionised teaching methods : he showed
the way to research and experimental work in education :
and introduced child-study. He taught us that not only
must the teacher know the child as a living and growing
organism, but he must acquire the art of becoming as a
little child so that he may influence, in the surest and
best ways, the child's development. Like Froebel he
said, in effect : " Come, let us live with our children ".
WHAT PESTALOZZI DID. 3II
That is to say, the teacher must adopt the standpoint of
a child, as a well-graced actor dons the character which
he impersonates. This must be done without exag-
geration, fuss, or affectation ; and without losing the
control which wisdom, affection and authority should
give. The teacher's mind should be so saturated with
the realisation of the child's view of things that he un-
consciously— in a great measure — works in a child-like
(not childish) manner.
Above all, Pestalozzi is the one who first tried to
analyse and systematise the very elements of the
science of education. He dealt with the first begin-
nings, the real origins, of educational development. As
Herbart says: "The Pestalozzian method . . . takes
care of the earliest age that is at all capable of re-
ceiving instruction. It treats it with the seriousness
and simplicity which are appropriate where the very
first raw materials are to be procured." Herein Pes-
talozzi was the father of infants' education, in the
modern sense ; and his great disciple Froebel — himself
in turn a Master — was truly an expounder and expander
of Pestalozzian principles. Although Pestalozzi only
sometimes dealt with those who were infants as to
their bodies, he (personally) nearly always dealt with
those who were infants as to their minds. It was of
these that he was always thinking, and it was with
them that he was so extraordinarily successful, as a
practical teacher.
Perhaps the greatest success that Pestalozzi had was
his influence upon two such men as Froebel and Her-
bart. Froebel says : *' It soon became evident to me
that Pestalozzi was to be the watchword of my life".
Herbart wrote several essays on Pestalozzi's A B C of
312 PESTALOZZI.
Sense-Perception, and himself wrote a treatise on the
same subject. Through these two men Pestalozzi has,
in a special sense and degree, influenced all modern
education. Indeed it is not too much to say that, in
relation to modern education, Pestalozzi began every-
thing, though he finished nothing.
During Pestalozzi's lifetime his system was intro-
duced into most of the European countries : Alexander
Boniface, for a time teacher of French at Yverdon,
established a Pestalozzian school in Paris. Bloch-
mann, teacher of music and geography at Yverdon, be-
came chief educational counsellor to the King of Saxony ;
Gruner, who visited Yverdon, was head of a Pesta-
lozzian school at Frankfort (where Froebel first taught) ;
Muller, who was sent to Burgdorf to study the system,
opened a Pestalozzian school at Mainz ; Plamann, a
visitor at Burgdorf, conducted a Pestalozzian school at
Berlin ; Barraud, who learnt under Pestalozzi, con-
ducted a school at Bergerac ; Voitel of Soleure founded
a school at Madrid, and a training college for teachers
at Santander ; Strom and Torlitz, two teachers sent by
the King of Denmark to study the system at Burgdorf,
were put in charge of a school in Copenhagen ; one
teacher went to St. Petersburg. The King of Holland
sent two student-teachers to Yverdon ; and the Crown
Prince himself visited the institution. Many young
men from all parts, more especially from Germany,
went to the institute as visitors, to study the system.
Our own country also came under the influence of
Pestalozzi. Dr. Kay based much of the teaching and
organisation of the Battersea Training College (founded
1840) on the principles of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg.
When he (Dr. Kay) became secretary of the Education
WHAT PESTALOZZI DID. 313
Department, he tried to spread a knowledge of Pesta-
lozzian method amongst teachers in London, but met
with little success. He introduced the Tables of the
Relations of Numbers ; and in 1855 a translation by Mr.
J. Tilleard of Raumer's Life and System of Pestalozzi
was included in the books given " By grant from the
Committee of Council on Education ". This transla-
tion had already appeared in the Educational Expositor.
Previous to this the Irish Commissioners for Education
had published an edition of a manual of exercises in
arithmetic, according to Pestalozzian methods, for the
use of their teachers ; and had introduced the methods
into the Dublin Model Schools. M. Du Puget, a
student-teacher at Yverdon, was teaching arithmetic on
the principles of Pestalozzi at a school at Abbeyleix, in
Ireland, in 1821.
The Home and Colonial Infant School Society (the
original name), which opened its schools and training
college on ist June, 1863, was founded for the purpose
of furthering Pestalozzi's ideas. In the " sketch of the
course that is contemplated " we find it stated that
*' number and form will occupy, as they always do in a
Pestalozzian school, a prominent place. . . . There will
be two courses of drawing — first, using it as a means
of developing invention, ingenuity and taste ; second,
using it as an imitative art. In singing it is hoped to
carry out the beautiful system of Naegeli, which begins
at the very commencement ; and by its elementary
exercises cultivates both the ear and voice before sing-'
ing is practised." Hermann Kriisi, the son of Pesta-
lozzr^s assistant, taught arithmetic and drawing in the
institution. Charles Reiner, also one of Pestalozzi's
assistants, was at one time a member of the staff.
314 PESTALOZZI.
Closely connected with the work of this society were
Rev. Charles Mayo, LL.D., and his sister, Miss Eliza-
beth Mayo, two enthusiastic educationists to whom
England probably owes more for the benefits of Pesta-
lozzi's principles than to any other two persons. They
jointly wrote Observations on the Establishment and Di-
rection of Infants' Schools, and Pestalozzi and His Prin-
ciples, the first editions of which were published in 1827
and 1828 respectively.
Dr. Mayo — having heard through Mr. Synge of
Glanmore Castle, County Wickford, of Pestalozzi's
principles of education — went to Yverdon in July, 1819,
and stayed nearly three years with Pestalozzi ; during
which time they got to know and esteem each other so
well that "[he] loved Pestalozzi as a father and was
himself loved as a son " (Miss Mayo, Pestalozzi and His
Principles). How highly Pestalozzi thought of Dr.
Mayo will be seen from the testimonial which he gave
him when he left the institute.
" I the undersigned certify by these lines, in testi-
mony of my esteem and of my sincere acknowledg-
ments, that the Rev. Charles Mayo has lived for three
years in my house, and has taken charge, during that
time, of divine service, and given lessons in religion,
and has been the director of the English pupils in my
establishment, in all religious, moral and scientific
subjects ; and that in this capacity he has co-operated
with much good-will and sagacity, and with a success
full of blessings, in the aim of the efforts of my life, to
their fullest extent. Viewing our proceedings without
prejudice, he has distinguished himself as much by his
serenity as by the active part he has taken. By
reason of this he has attained to a very exact and pro-
Part of a Letter written by Pestalozzi to Dr. Mayo. The
SKETCH OF the CaSTLE (YvERDOn) IS BY Dr. MaYO.
From MS. in the possession of Miss Mayo.
WHAT PESTALOZZI DID. 315
found knowledge of the tendency of our efforts. Also
he has grasped the principles and the particular
methods, and their qualifications, which are peculiar
to our system of education and manner of instruction.
" For some time I have found him to be a sensible
man, sedate and benevolent, in the affairs of my own
house ; and I am convinced that, as his stay in our
house has been for him and for me a great gain, he will
— by reason of his ripe knowledge of the aim of our
efforts, and of his positive conviction of the important
and essential advantages of a part of these efforts —
exert a very great influence in his own country ; which
being in the habit of welcoming everything that it
recognises to be for good, will extend the same gener-
osity in favour of our views. His noble heart nourishes
this scheme, true to nature as it is, with as much zeal
as his mind understands the means of carrying it out in
all its purity, all its depth, and all its extent.
" May God be with you, my very dear friend ! My
sincere gratitude, my deep affection, is with you. My
fervent desire is to see you once more during my life,
and to nourish once more, with you by my side, those
hopes the accomplishment of which is scarcely possible
until after my death. May my good wishes accompany
you and bring you happily to your own country and to
the arms of your mother, whom you love with tender
and filial affection.
*' Pestalozzi.
" YvERDON, Sth April, 1822."
On his return to England in April, 1822, he made
arrangements for opening a school, to be conducted on
Pestalozzian principles, for the children of the upper
classes. This was established at Epsom, and com-
31 6 PESTALOZZI.
menced in August, 1822. So great was its success that
it had to be removed to larger premises, and was taken
to Cheam after the midsummer holidays, 1826. Here
the school became very famous, and many of the fore-
most men of the next generation received their early
education within its walls. Miss Mayo had, at her
brother's request, been preparing herself for several
years to assist him in school-work, and was his right
hand both at Epsom and Cheam.
Perhaps the greatest good they did for English
education generally was to demonstrate the value and
importance of object lessons in school work, and to
organise them on Pestalozzian principles and practical
lines. To Miss Mayo belongs the chief credit of this.
She wrote several excellent little manuals for teachers,
viz., (i) Lessons on Objects (1830), which passed through
twenty-six editions, was translated into Spanish, and
also published in America ; (2) Lessons on Shells (1831);
(3) Model Lessons for Infants' School Teachers and Nursery
Governesses (1838) ; and others, which proved of the
greatest service in spreading sounder views of educa-
tional methods.
In the preface to the fourteenth edition (1855) of
Lessons on Objects Miss Mayo remarks : " When this
work was first presented to the public, nearly thirty
years since, the idea of systematically using the material
world as one of the means of educating the minds
of children was so novel and so untried a thing in
England, that the title. Lessons on Objects, excited many
a smile, and the success of the little volume was
deemed to be, at best, very dubious. The plain sound
sense of the plan, however, soon recommended it to our
teachers, and they discovered that reading, writing
WHAT PESTALOZZI DID. 317
and arithmetic do not form the sole basis of elementary
education, but that the objects and actions of every-day
life should have a very prominent place in their pro-
gramme."
Miss Mayo was very closely connected with the found-
ing and the working of the Home and Colonial Infant
School Society. Mr. John Stuckey Reynolds, of Hamp-
stead, desiring to devote his life to philanthropic effort,
and hearing of Miss Mayo's knowledge of Pestalozzian-
ism, called on her and invited her to supervise the teach-
ing in a training college with practising schools, while
he undertook the financial arrangements. She agreed
to do this, and for over twenty years was the guiding
spirit of the institution.
Such are some of the more immediate outcomes of
Pestalozzi's work. Of the full and final result of his
life and ideas no man can form a just estimate; but
certain it is that the world is the richer, and mankind
the happier because of them. It is given to but few
men to do world-work, but Pestalozzi was one of these ;
though the world at large has not yet fully understood
and realised what he has done for it. When it does it
is not too much to say that his ideas will never be
entirely fulfilled, so true and deep are they. Improved
they should, and must, be ; exhausted they can never
be, in that they are true to the innermost core of man's
nature.
Of this great and good man we may say, in the elo-
quent words of De Guimps, as true to-day as when he
wrote them more than twenty years ago : ** He died at
his work, this noble friend of the poor; and, dying, he
addressed a supreme appeal to those who might do
more and better than he had done, and continue after
31 8 PESTALOZZI.
him the work that he had the sorrow of leaving un-
finished. In his humble modesty he seems to have
forgotten that it was he who had accompHshed the
hardest and most important task, by laying bare the
vices of his time, discovering the principles of a salutary
reform, and throwing a way open in which we have
now but to walk.
" It is for the true and warm friends of humanity,
those who, understanding Pestalozzi, feel themselves
at one with him in spirit and heart, to answer his appeal,
and follow him in the difficult path made easier by his
devotion. To-day the gate stands wide open, and the
need is pressing."
SOME BOOKS FOR REFERENCE.
The following five books are named because they are in English, and were
written by men who knew Pestalozzi and his work. All except numbers
I and 4 are out of print, but they are to be found in public and private
libraries : —
I. Life of Pestalozzi, by Roger de Guimps. 2. On Early Education,
letters to J. P. Greaves. 3. Henry Pestalozzi, by Dr. E. Biber. 4.
A B C of Sense-Perception, by Herbart. 5. Pestalozzi, by Dr. and Miss
Mayo.
Some other books: i. Esprit de la Methode d' education de Pestalozzi,
by M. A. Jullien. 2. Pestalozzi, by J. Guillaume. 3. Zur Biographie
Pestalozzis, by H. Morf. 4. Pestalozzis Sammtliche Werke, edited by
Seyffarth. 5. Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy, edited by Henry Barnard.
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING.
The relation of Pestalozzi's theories on the development of knowledge,
ideas and language, and on the laws of thought, should be compared
with those of the great thinkers who preceded him, viz., Aristotle,
Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Leibnitz and Kant. Some idea of these may
be obtained from the following : —
I. Biographical History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes. 2. On Hurhan
Understanding, by Locke. 3. The Port-Royal Logic, translated by T. S.
Baynes. 4. Laws of Thoiight, by Thomson. 5. Elementary Lessons in
Logic, by Jevons.
The relation of Pestalozzi's ideas on these subjects to those of to-day
may be seen by the study of the Manual of Psychology, by G. F. Stout ;
The Principles of Psychology, by William James; The Logical Bases of
Education, by J. Welton; The Child's Mind, by W. E. Urwick.
319
INDEX.
Anschauung: nature of, 179-81.
Arithmetic : see number.
Atmosphere : the school, 256-61.
Biber, Dr. : on the Neuhof failure,
50-51 ; on the Yverdon Institute,
93-96; on P.'s assistants, 103-4.
Burgdorf : P.'s work at, 80-88.
Character of P., 121-41.
Child-study: P.'s work in, 33-38,
43-44, 75-76, 144-48.
Christopher and Eliza, 59.
Clindy Poor School, iio-ii.
Curriculum : at Yverdon, 100-2.
Der Erinnerer, 27, 149.
" Discover everything " : criticism
of, 300-2.
Drawing: beginnings of, 215 ; teach-
ing of, 215-18, 286-87.
Education :
168-78.
nature and aims of,
Fellenberg de, Emmanuel, 16-18, 59.
Form: in education, 185-86, 189-go;
teaching of, 215-22 ; criticism of
P.'s ideas on, 297-300.
Froebel : on P., 131-32, 311.
Genetic education, 173-78, 186, 189,
193-
Genius : the nature and work of,
1-2, 148, 304-5.
Geography : teaching of, 230-32.
Girard Pere, 15-16.
Guimps de : on the Yverdon In-
stitute, 97-99.
Gymnastics :
161-64.
nature and use of
Helvetic Society, the, 13-14, 27,
143-
Herbart: on P., 177-78, 308-9, 311.
History : teaching of, 232-33.
How Gertrude Teaches : ahn and
nature of, 83.
of, 183-84,
process of.
Ideas : development
186-88, 191.
Intellectual education
178-90.
Intuition, or anschauung : nature of,
179-81 ; basis of all learning, 185,
192, 198 ; the basis of language,
loo-i, 199-203, 205-6.
Investigation into the Course of
Nature : aim and scope of, 63-67*
Knowledge : development of, 182-90.
Language, criticism of P.'s idea
of, 297-300; its function in edu-
cation, 185-86, 189-90; teaching
of, 197-214, 281-88,
Latin : teaching of, 246-49.
Leonard and Gertrude: origin and
substance of, 53-58 ; continued,
59, 63, 117.
Letter : of P. : to Swiss Minister of
Justice, 69; of Emperor to P.,
97-98.
Manual work, 242-46.
Mayo, Miss, 316-17,
Mayo, Rev. Dr., 314-16; on the
Yverdon Institute, 104-5 ; on P.'s
plan of teaching Latin, 247-48.
321
21
322
INDEX.
Morals : origin, nature and training
in, 159-62; teaching of, 249-55.
Moral and religious development :
education a means of, 155-62,
169-70.
Mother, the: in education, 55, 153,
156-58, 181, 205-6, 208, 211-13,
260-61, 264-65.
Munchen Buchsee : P. at, 8g.
Music: as moral training, 161-62;
teaching of, 237-42.
Mutual instruction, 269-70 ; criticism
of, 294-96.
Natural Schoolmaster, The, 252-54.
Nature, method of: to be followed
in education, 36, 60, 171-78, 179,
198, 211.
Neuhof industrial school, 39-48.
Number : in education, 185 - 86,
189-90; teaching of, 34-35, 86, 97,
222-29, 258, 287 ; criticism of P.'s
method, etc., 296-97, 297-300.
Observation : first-hand best, 147-48 ;
training of, 184-89, 192, 205-6 ;
in geography, 230-32 ; in science,
233-35-
Pestalozzi : as a Deputy, 87-88 ; as
a practical teacher, 283 ; at school,
21-22; at college, 27-31; begins
to be famous, 69-70; begins as
vv^riter, 50-55 ; failure at Neuhof,
44-49 ; leaves farming, 32-33 ; last
days and work, 113-19 ; studies
his child, 33-38; what he did for
education, 307-13.
Physical development : education as
means of, 162-66; training, 95,
242-46.
Popular Swiss News : aim and
nature of, 68.
Punishment : as natural conse-
quence, 38, 157, 275; school,
274-82.
Reading : is secondary in education,
198 ; teaching of, 207-14, 257.
Reports on P.'s work: at Stanz,
76-77; at Burgdorf, 84-87; at
Yverdon, 106-7.
Rousseau : his Contrat Social, 11-13 ;
influence on P., 28.
School-books : written by and for
P., 83-84, lOI.
Schools : kind of in P.'s time, 23-26.
Science : teaching of, 233-37.
Senses : training of, 164-65.
Simultaneous oral work, 266-68, 285 ;
criticism of, 292-94.
Social development : education a
means of, 149-55, 168-69.
Spelling : teaching of, 203-8, 284.
Staff conferences, 270-73.
Stanz orphan school : history of,
71-79.
Summaries of P.'s theory, 194-96.
Swan's Song : purpose of, 113-14.
Swiss News ; aim and contents of,
60-63.
Switzerland : political and social
changes in, 7-15, 68, 87-88.
Teacher, the : as educator, 190-96 ;
qualifications of, i6i-66 ; criticism
of P.'s idea of, 302-6.
Time-table, 274.
Wanderer's evening prayer (hymn),
116.
Writing : is secondary in education,
198 ; teaching of, 146, 257, 219-21 ;
and composition, 221-22.
Yverdon : P.'s work at, 89-112.
THE ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS LIMITED
V
H 311 84 «
^ ' o hO^ « 0 ^
.<b^r
* '<P^ ^>
■» o
<^ "%. ^
£^^^
o_ *
0 "^
^. .!^^ ^'A\"^f/h.'_ <t.. A^ »"«!i^*,''. ■■<■. A
^^•v.